Mujeres Ilustres

Diana de Gales

2008-07-07T19:49:00.000-07:00

La princesa de Gales, más conocida con el nombre de lady Di, nació en Park House, Sandringham (Norfolk), el 1 de julio de 1961 y falleció en el hospital La Petié Salpetrière de París la noche del 30 al 31 de agosto de 1997. Alcanzó popularidad mundial por su matrimonio con Carlos, heredero de la corona británica, su posterior divorcio y, aún más, por su prematura muerte.
Hija menor de John Spencer, octavo conde de Althorp, y de Frances Ruth Roche, Diana Spencer creció en una familia de la pequeña nobleza junto a sus dos hermanas, Sarah y Jane, y su hermano menor, Carlos. Pasó los primeros años de su vida en la residencia familiar de Sandringham, donde recibió su primera educación, de manos de institutrices. En 1968, tras el divorcio del matrimonio Spencer, Diana quedó bajo custodia paterna, y aquel mismo año ingresó en la escuela de King´s Lynn. En 1970 se trasladó al internado femenino de Riddlesworth Hall y en 1973 ingresó en West Heath, otro internado en el condado de Kent. Entre 1977 y 1978 estudió en Suiza y finalmente se estableció en Londres, donde trabajó para varias empresas hasta que en noviembre de 1977 conoció a Carlos, heredero del trono británico, con quien entabló noviazgo dos años después.
El 24 de febrero de 1981 el portavoz del Palacio de Buckingham anunció el compromiso oficial de lady Diana Spencer y el príncipe de Gales y, en adelante, Diana trasladó su domicilio a Clarence House, residencia de la reina madre. La boda de la pareja, que se celebró el 29 de julio de 1981 en la catedral londinense de Sant Paul y fue oficiada por el arzobispo de Canterbury, se convirtió en un acontecimiento social de repercusión internacional retransmitido por televisión a más de setecientos millones de espectadores. Convocó en Londres a más de un millón de personas y no faltaron a la ceremonia los principales miembros de la aristocracia europea y más de ciento setenta jefes de Estado.

El 21 de junio de 1982 lady Diana dio a luz a su primogénito, el príncipe Guillermo, en el hospital Saint Mary de Paddington. Aquel mismo año, la princesa realizó su primer viaje oficial en solitario, para asistir al funeral de Grace Kelly, princesa de Mónaco. En abril del año siguiente, Diana acompañó a Carlos a Australia y Nueva Zelanda, en el primer viaje oficial de la pareja. El segundo hijo de los príncipes de Gales, Enrique, nació el 15 de septiembre de 1984.
Aunque Diana trató de llevar una vida familiar dedicada al cuidado de sus hijos, en su agenda se imponía la limitación de los más de quinientos compromisos oficiales que el matrimonio estaba obligado a atender anualmente. Hasta 1985, la pareja no mostró desavenencias en público pero a partir de 1986 la prensa sensacionalista británica comenzó a publicar rumores de crisis matrimonial. A pesar de que la familia trataba de ofrecer una imagen de unidad, lo cierto es que cada vez se hacían más frecuentes los viajes de Diana en solitario y en mayo de 1992, después de regresar de la India y Egipto, saltaron a la opinión pública los primeros rumores de separación. La publicación de un libro de Andrew Morton sobre Diana, en el que el autor se reafirmaba en la tesis del fracaso matrimonial y la confirmación de que Carlos mantenía una relación con su vieja amiga, Camila Parker Bowles, convirtieron en noticia las especulaciones de los últimos meses. A principios de diciembre los príncipes de Gales se separaron, se anunció una relación sentimental de Diana con James Gilbey y se desató una auténtica guerra de acusaciones mutuas entre los defensores de la princesa y la casa real británica. Algunas fuentes revelaron entonces que tanto Carlos como Diana de Gales reclutaron periódicos nacionales para publicar sus propias versiones sobre el detonante de la ruptura. El matrimonio se rompió de forma definitiva en marzo de 1994 y el 29 de febrero de 1996 Diana aceptó divorciarse de Carlos.

En los años siguientes, Diana prestó su imagen pública a diferentes organismos humanitarios y apareció en multitud de actos en favor de los sectores más marginados de la sociedad. Entretanto, la prensa sensacionalista continuó explotando todas las facetas imaginables del personaje de lady Di. La propia Diana llegó a reconocer su adulterio y la lista, real o inventada, de los amantes de la princesa fue creciendo: a Gilbey se unieron los nombres de Barry Mannakke, Philip Dunne, Oliver Hoare y James Hewitt. El último hombre con quien se relacionó a Diana Spencer fue el millonario de origen egipcio Dodi Al Fayed. Ambos perdieron la vida en un espectacular accidente de automóvil, cuando trataban de evitar a los paparazzi y circulaban a gran velocidad por el interior del túnel del Alma en París. Lady Di fue enterrada en su localidad natal.
La popularidad de lady Di
La muerte de Diana Spencer exaltó el fenómeno social de la "dianamanía" y la casa real británica, que al principio mostró no pocas reticencias, accedió al reclamo popular y celebró en su honor un soberbio funeral en Westminster, que fue retransmitido en directo por televisión y al que asistieron cerca de dos millones de personas.
La vida de Diana Spencer, tanto durante su matrimonio como después de su separación, fue objeto continuo de la atención de millones de seguidores y tema recurrente de la llamada "prensa rosa". Todas sus apariciones en público recibieron un tratamiento especial por parte de los medios de comunicación e incluso su peinado y su modo de vestir fueron imitados hasta la saciedad. Según la revista Majesty, Diana generó cerca de quince millones de libras en publicidad a los fabricantes de los artículos que utilizaba. Su popularidad superó en mucho a la de su marido, fue siempre considerada una madre ejemplar y tras su muerte hubo propuestas de canonización que, finalmente, fueron desestimadas.

The Princess of Wales, better known by the name of Lady Di, was born at Park House, Sandringham (Norfolk), the July 1, 1961 and died in hospital La Petié Salpêtrière in Paris the night of 30-31 August 1997 . Global popularity reached by her marriage to Charles, heir to the British crown, after her divorce and even more for his untimely death.
Youngest daughter of John Spencer, the eighth Earl of Althorp, and Frances Ruth Roche, Diana Spencer grew up in a family of the little acclaim alongside his two sisters, Sarah and Jane, and his younger brother, Carlos. He spent the early years of his life in the family residence of Sandringham, where he received his first education in the hands of governesses. In 1968, after the divorce of marriage Spencer, Diana was put under parental custody, and that year he joined the school in King's Lynn. In 1970 he moved to the internship female Riddlesworth Hall and in 1973 joined West Heath, another school in the county of Kent. Between 1977 and 1978 he studied in Switzerland and eventually settled in London, where he worked for several firms until, in November 1977 she met Charles, heir to the British throne, with whom he began dating two years later.

On February 24th 1981, the spokesman for the Buckingham Palace announced the engagement official lady Diana Spencer and Prince of Wales and subsequently, Diana moved his home to Clarence House, residence of the queen mother. The wedding of the couple, which was held on July 29th, 1981 in St. Paul Cathedral in London and was officiated by the Archbishop of Canterbury, became a social event of international repercussions broadcast on television to more than seven million spectators . Convened in London to more than one million people and there were at the ceremony leading member of the European aristocracy and more than one hundred seventy heads of state.

On June 21st, 1982 Lady Diana gave birth to her eldest son, Prince William, Saint Mary hospital in Paddington. That same year, the princess made her first official solo trip to attend the funeral of Grace Kelly, princess of Monaco. In April the following year, Diana accompanied Charles to Australia and New Zealand in the first official trip to the couple. The second son of the Princes of Wales, Henry, born on September 15, 1984.

Although Diana tried to lead a life dedicated to caring for their children, their agenda was imposed limitation of the more than five hundred official engagements that the marriage was bound to meet annually. Until 1985, the couple showed no disagreement in public but from 1986 the British tabloid press began to publish rumors of marital crisis. Although the family tried to offer an image of unity, the fact is that increasingly became more frequent trips Diana alone and in May 1992 after returning from India and Egypt, jumped to the public The first rumors of separation. The publication of a book by Andrew Morton about Diana, in which he reaffirmed in the theory of the failure of marriage and confirmation that Carlos had a relationship with his old friend, Camilla Parker Bowles, became news speculation in recent months. In early December, the princes of Wales were separated, it was announced in a romantic relationship with Diana and James Gilbey was unleashed a veritable war of mutual accusations between the defenders of the princess and the British royal house. Some sources revealed then that both Carlos and Diana of Wales recruited national newspapers to publish their own versions on the trigger for the break. The marriage broke down in final form in March 1994 to February 29 1996 Diana agreed to divorce from Charles.

In the following years, Diana lent his public image to different humanitarian agencies and appeared in numerous acts for the most marginalized sectors of society. Meanwhile, the tabloid press continued to exploit all imaginable facets of the character of Lady Di. The very Diana came to recognize his adultery and the list, real or invented, for those who love the princess was to grow to Gilbey joined the names of Barry Mannakke, Philip Dunne, Oliver Hoare and James Hewitt. The last man with whom he was related to Diana Spencer was the origin of Egyptian billionaire Dodi Al Fayed. Both lost their lives in a spectacular car accident, while trying to avoid the paparazzi and traveling at high speed through the interior of the Alma tunnel in Paris. Lady Di was buried in his hometown.

The popularity of Lady Di's death of Diana Spencer praised the social phenomenon of "dianamanía" and the British royal house, which initially showed no little hesitation, acceded to popular demand and held in his honor a magnificent funeral in Westminster, which was broadcast live on television and attended by nearly two million people.

The life of Diana Spencer, both during their marriage and after their separation, was the subject of continuous attention of millions of follower's and recurring theme of the so called "pink press". All of his appearances in public received special treatment from the media and even their hairstyles and their mode of dress were imitated ad nauseam. According to the magazine Majesty, Diana generated about fifteen million pounds in advertising to manufacturers of the items they used. His popularity far exceeded that of her husband, was always considered an exemplary mother and after her death, there were proposals for canonization that eventually were dismissed.

Madre Teresa de Calcuta

2008-07-07T19:30:00.000-07:00

Nacida como Agnes Gonxha Bojaxhiu hizo su Primera Comunión a la edad de cinco años y medio, y recibió la confirmacion en noviembre de 1916. Desde el día de su Primera Comunión mostró una gran devoción religiosa. En su formación religiosa, Teresa fue asistida además por la Parroquia Jesuita del Sagrado Corazón, en la que ella estaba muy integrada. Cuando tenía treinta años, se hizo misionera. En Irlanda recibió el nombre de Hermana María Teresa. En el mes de diciembre inició su viaje hacia India, donde enseñó en la Escuela para chicas St. Mary. El 24 de mayo de 1937, la Hermana Teresa hizo su profesión convirtiéndose en “esposa de Jesús” para “toda la eternidad”. Desde ese momento se la llamó Madre Teresa. Continuó enseñando en St. Mary convirtiéndose en directora del centro en 1944. Al ser una persona de profunda oración y de arraigado amor por sus hermanas religiosas y por sus estudiantes, los veinte años que Madre Teresa transcurrió en Loreto estuvieron impregnados de profunda alegría. Caracterizada por su caridad,vivió su consagración a Jesús entre sus compañeras con fidelidad y alegría. En marzo de 1997, la Madre Teresita bendijo a su recién elegida sucesora como Superiora General. Después de encontrarse por última vez con el Papa, volvió a Calcuta donde transcurrió las últimas semanas de vida.

La Madre Teresa de Calcuta murió el 5 de Septiembre de un paro cardiaco en la casa madre de su comunidad en Calcuta, India a la edad de 87 años. Era primer viernes. Recibió un entierro con todos los honores de estado el 13 de Septiembre, 80ta aniversario de la penúltima aparición de Fátima a quien ella tenia gran devoción. El 10 de Septiembre de 1997 se cumplían 51 años del viaje en tren en el que contemplo a los pobres de la India y escucho la voz del Señor llamándole a entregarse a ellos

Born as Agnes Gonxha Bojaxhiu made his First Communion at the age of five and a half years, and received confirmation in November 1916. From the day of their First Communion showed great religious devotion. In their religious, Teresa was also assisted by the Jesuit parish of the Sacred Heart, where she was very composed. When I was thirty years, became a missionary. In Ireland received the name of Sister Maria Teresa. In December, began his journey to India, where he taught at the School for Girls St. Mary. On May 24, 1937, Sister Teresa made her profession by becoming " the wife of Jesus " for "all eternity." Since that time it was called Mother Teresa. He continued teaching at St. Mary became director of the center in 1944. Being a person of prayer and deep rooted love for their sisters and their religious students, twenty years since Mother Teresa passed in Loreto were imbued with deep joy. Characterized by his charity, his commitment to Jesus lived among his peers with fidelity and joy. In March 1997, Mother Teresita blessed his newly elected successor as Superior General. After last meet with the pope, he returned to Calcutta where he spent the last few weeks of life.
Mother Teresa died in Calcutta on September 5th of a heart attack at home mother of his community in Calcutta, India at the age of 87 years. It was the first Friday. He received a funeral with state honors all the September 13th, 80th anniversary of the penultimate appearance of Fatima to whom she had great devotion. On September 10th 1997 were fulfilled 51 years of travel by train in which to contemplate the poor in India and hear the voice of the Lord calling him to surrender to them.

Catalina La Grande

2008-07-07T19:22:00.000-07:00

Con el nombre de Sophie Fredericke Auguste von Anhalt-Zerbst, Catalina nació en Stettin (actual ciudad de Szczecin, en Polonia) el 2 de mayo de 1729, hija de un príncipe alemán. En 1745, se casó con el gran duque Pedro de Holstein, heredero al trono ruso. El matrimonio no fue feliz, pero la inteligente y ambiciosa Catalina no tardó en rodearse de un grupo de seguidores en San Petersburgo. En 1754 dio a luz un hijo, el futuro emperador Pablo. El marido de Catalina accedió al trono como Pedro III en 1762. Excéntrico, inestable y despectivo con sus súbditos, pronto se vio alejado de varios grupos importantes de la sociedad rusa. El 9 de julio de 1762, siguiendo una práctica habitual en la Rusia del siglo XVIII, la Guardia Imperial le derrocó y colocó en su lugar a Catalina en el trono. Pocos días después Pedro fue asesinado.

Catalina conocía bien la literatura de la Ilustración francesa, la cual ejerció una gran influencia sobre su propio pensamiento político. Mantuvo un estrecho contacto con Voltaire y Denis Diderot, prestó apoyo financiero a algunos escritores franceses, y Diderot fue huésped de su corte en 1773. Aunque con estas actividades simplemente pretendía crearse una imagen favorable en Europa Occidental, probablemente fue sincera en su interés y en su esperanza de poder aplicar algunas de las ideas ilustradas a la racionalización y reforma de la administración del Imperio ruso. A pesar de su interés en la reforma legal, la comisión que nombró para llevar a cabo esta tarea en 1767 no pudo cumplir sus objetivos. Entre los logros de Catalina se pueden destacar: la creación de las primeras escuelas para chicas y la de un colegio médico para el cuidado de sus súbditos.
En los primeros años de su reinado, Catalina trató de ganarse el apoyo de la clase acomodada rusa, y, en concreto, de un pequeño grupo de nobles. Confirmó la decisión de Pedro III de librar a la clase acomodada del servicio militar obligatorio, les concedió otros muchos privilegios y colmó a sus seguidores con títulos, cargos, tierras y siervos para trabajar en sus campos. A pesar de su declarado aborrecimiento de la servidumbre, hizo mucho por extender esta institución, cediendo siervos del Estado a propietarios privados, llevando la servidumbre a los territorios de reciente adquisición e incrementando el control legal de la clase acomodada sobre sus siervos.

El malestar de los campesinos culminó en una gran rebelión (1773-1775), encabezada por el cosaco Yemelián Pugachov, que hizo estragos en la mayor parte de la cuenca del río Volga y en los montes Urales, antes de ser definitivamente aplastada por las fuerzas militares. La rebelión marcó un giro hacia una política interna más reaccionaria. El ejército cosaco fue disuelto, y se concedieron privilegios especiales a otros cosacos, tratando de convertirlos en leales seguidores de la autocracia. En 1775 se llevó a cabo una importante reforma de la administración provincial, con el fin de conseguir un mejor control del Imperio. También se realizó una gran reforma de la administración urbana. La Revolución Francesa incrementó la hostilidad de Catalina hacia las ideas liberales. Varios críticos de la institución de la servidumbre fueron encarcelados, y parece ser que Catalina estaba planeando formar parte de una coalición europea contra Francia cuando murió el 17 de noviembre de 1796, en San Petersburgo.
Durante el reinado de Catalina, el territorio del Imperio ruso se extendió enormemente. Gracias a dos guerras contra el Imperio otomano (1768-1774 y 1787-1791) y a la anexión de Crimea (1783), Rusia logró controlar la costa norte del mar Negro. El control ruso sobre Polonia y Lituania también aumentó en gran medida, culminando con la anexión de grandes extensiones de territorio en los tres repartos de Polonia (1772, 1793, 1795).

Una de las características del reinado de Catalina fue el importante papel que desempeñaron sus amantes o favoritos. Diez hombres ocuparon este cargo semioficial, y al menos dos de ellos, Grigori Orlov y Grigori Alexándrovich Potemkín, tuvieron especial importancia a la hora de formular la política exterior e interior del país. Aunque la valoración de la figura de Catalina puede variar, es indudable que desempeñó un papel clave en el desarrollo de Rusia como estado moderno.

With the name of Sophie Frederick Auguste von Anhalt-Zerbst, Catherine was born in Stettin (now the city of Szczecin, Poland) on May 2nd in 1729, daughter of a German prince. In 1745, she married the Grand Duke Peter of Holstein, heir to the Russian throne. The marriage was not happy, but intelligent and ambitious Catherine was soon surrounded by a group of supporters in St. Petersburg. In 1754 gave birth to a son, the future Emperor Paul. The husband of Catherine acceded to the throne as Peter III in 1762. Eccentric, unstable and disparaging with his subjects, was soon removed from several major groups of Russian society. On July 9th of 1762, following a common practice in Russia from the eighteenth century, the Imperial Guard overthrew him and put in place to Catalina on the throne. A few days after Peter was killed.

Catherine was well acquainted with the literature of the French Enlightenment, which exerted a great influence on his own political thought. Maintained close contact with Denis Diderot and Voltaire, provided financial support to some French writers, and Diderot was a guest of his court in 1773. Although these activities simply meant creating a favourable image in Western Europe, probably was sincere in his interest and in its hope to implement some of the ideas presented to the rationalization and reform of the administration of the Russian Empire. Despite their interest in legal reform, the commission he appointed to carry out this task in 1767 was unable to meet its goals. Among the achievements of Catherine can be highlighted: the creation of the first schools for girls and a school doctor for the care of his subjects.

In the early years of her reign, Catherine tried to win support from the wealthy class in Russia, and, specifically, a small group of nobles. Upheld the decision of Peter III of ridding the wealthy class of compulsory military service, given many privileges and his followers filled with titles, titles, lands and slaves to work in their fields. Despite its stated abhorrence of slavery, did much to extend this institution, bowing servants of the state to private ownership, carrying bonded to the recent acquisition of territories and increasing the legal control of the wealthy class on his servants.

The malaise of the peasants culminated in a major rebellion (1773-1775), led by the Cossack Yemelián Pugachov, who made havoc in most parts of the Volga and the Ural Mountains, before being finally crushed by the forces military. The rebellion marked a turning point toward a domestic policy more reactionary. The Cossack army was dissolved, and were granted special privileges to other Cossacks, trying to turn them into loyal followers of autocracy. In 1775 launched a major reform of the provincial administration in order to achieve better control of the Empire. It also undertook a major reform of urban administration. The French Revolution increased the hostility of Catherine towards liberal ideas. Several critics of the institution of slavery were imprisoned, and it seems that Catherine was planning to join a European coalition against France when he died on November 17th 1796, in St. Petersburg.

During the reign of Catherine, the territory of the Russian empire expanded enormously. Thanks to two wars against the Ottoman Empire (1768-1774 and 1787-1791) and the annexation of Crimea (1783), Russia succeeded in controlling the north coast of the Black Sea. The Russian control over Poland and Lithuania also increased greatly, culminating with the annexation of large swathes of territory in the three divisions of Poland (1772, 1793, 1795).

One of the characteristics of the reign of Catherine was the important role played by their lovers or favorite. Ten men occupied this post semiofficial, and at least two of them, Grigory Orlov and Grigory Alexandrovich Potemkin, had special importance when formulating foreign policy and interior of the country. Although the valuation of the figure of Catherine may vary, there is no doubt that played a key role in the development of Russia as a modern state.

Lilith

2008-07-07T16:56:00.000-07:00

Lilith representa a todas las mujeres que hoy luchan por el "poder femenino", no solo con palabras sino con hechos, que han sabido igualar y abrir nuevas oportunidades al género femenino. Ella fue expulsada del paraíso.

En nuestros días, la mujer lucha por llegar a una relación de igual a igual con el hombre, pero muy pocos saben que la primera mujer en pelear por derechos igualitarios fue la primera mujer creada por Dios: "Lilith". Según cuenta en la literatura hebrea fue la primera esposa de Adán, creada de barro, pero "Lilith" exigió derechos igualitarios a Adán desde el momento de su concepción, por lo que se fue del paraiso, convirtiéndose en un súcubo (demonio femenino, una perfecta ninfómana que seduce a hombres con maestría para extrangularlos después). De igual manera en muchas sociedades, se le atribuye el rapto de bebés y de ella deriba la voz en inglés "LULLABY" ("alejate Lilith"), correspondiente a lo que en Latinoamerica llamamos "canción de cuna" o en España "nanas". Creo que "Lilith" representa a todas las mujeres que hoy luchan por el "poder femenino", no solo con palabras sino con hechos, que han sabido igualar y abrir nuevas oportunidades al género femenino. La historia cuenta que tras la huida de Lilith del paraíso, Dios creó a Eva de una costilla, mujer sumiza y apegada a las normas de Adán. Vaya recovecos que tiene la historia, en casi todo le queda a Ud. decidir a qué "bando" pertenece...

Lilith represents all women who today are fighting for the "power women", not only with words but with deeds, that have managed to equalize and open up new opportunities for the female gender. She was expelled from paradise. Nowadays, women struggle to come to a relationship of equals with men, but very few know that the first woman to fight for equal rights was the first woman created by God: "Lilith". Nowadays, women struggle to come to a relationship of equals with men, but very few know that the first woman to fight for equal rights was the first woman created by God "Lilith". Similarly, in many societies, given the abduction of babies and she deriba voice in English "Lullaby" ( "Lilith away" ), corresponding to what in Latin America called "lullaby" or Spain & "lullabies". I think "Lilith" represents all women who today are fighting for the "power women", not only with words but with deeds, that have managed to equalize and open up new opportunities for the female gender. History tells us that after the flight of Lilith's paradise, God created Eve from a rib, woman sumiza and adheres to the standards of Adam. Go nook that has history, in almost everything is left to you. decide which "side" belongs...

Amalasuntha

2008-07-07T16:49:00.000-07:00

Amalasuntha vino al mundo a finales de julio del año 498 después de Cristo y era el único retoño sobreviviente de Teodorico el Grande, rey de los Ostrogodos que sirvió como enlace entre la caída más o menos oficial del imperio romano occidental y el período medieval. Aunque la fecha oficial del colapso de los romanos fue el año 476, entre 493 y 526 Italia gozó del buen juicio del monarca ostrogodo Teodorico, quien rigió los destinos de los romanos como un antiguo césar de los buenos(que no fueron muchos...)a pesar de que no podía ni firmar su nombre.Teodorico sostenía relaciones muy amistosas con los emperadores romanos de oriente que mandaban en Constantinopla. Amalasuntha resultó ser una niña muy inteligente, vigorosa y buena alumna, y Teodorico no sufrió mucho por la ausencia de descendientes varones. Amalasuntha contrajo nupcias de conveniencia con un guapo pero sombrío noble de quien algunos dicen que padecía de epilepsia.Reza la leyenda que el pobre marido de Amalasuntha se convulsionó durante el ejercicio de sus deberes conyugales durante la noche de bodas, y esto le proporcionó a la pobre princesa un trauma en cuanto al ejercicio de su sexualidad.Cuando Teodorico murió en el año 526, dejó como heredero a Atalarico, el hijo que Amalasuntha había tenido en el año 518 como fruto de su matrimonio con su taciturno noble gótico, Eutharico. Dado que los ostrogodos eran machistas a más no poder y nunca soportarían ser súbditos de una mujer, Amalasuntha juró fidelidad y sumisión a su hijo Athalarico, de apenas 8 años de edad. Amalasuntha quedaba de regente. Amalasunta se puso manos a la obra para evitar que floreciera la corrupción gubernamental dentro del imperio ostrogodo, y creó un ejército fuerte para evitar que los bárbaros siguieran haciendo sus temidas incursiones en el norte de su patria. Amalasuntha llegó a amar el poder que ejercía, y cuando su hijo tenía trece años lo entregó a sus tutores para que le dieran una estupenda educación. Esto causó cejas alzadas entre los ostrogodos, quienes eran un pueblo que valoraba más el ardor en la batalla y el despliegue de musculatura en lugar de la fortaleza intelectual que da una buena disciplina educativa. Muchos criticaban a Amalasuntha dado que Teodorico no había precisado el saber leer para ser un buen rey.Amalasuntha pronto descubrió que algunos de sus nobles, aprovechando que su marido ya había pasado a mejor vida, la consideraron blanco fácil para un complot. Amalasuntha probó que aunque era una viuda, no le faltaban agallas e hizo ejecutar a los nobles que quisieron quitarla de en medio.Amalasuntha, deseosa de caerle bien a sus súbditos, permitió que su hijo no solo estudiara con sus tutores académicos, sino que le fomentó salidas al campo con amigotes de su edad para que jugara y aprendiera a luchar. Esto fue un craso error, pues los envidiosos muchachos solo enseñaron al joven Atalarico a beber licor, participar en orgías y andar de faldero con mujeres de muy baja estofa, llegando a contraer una enfermedad venérea.En el año 534 Atalarico murió, y dicen las malas lenguas que su deceso se vio acelerado por el desgaste causado a su organismo por la vida de francachelas que llevaba. La posición de Amalasuntha era precaria. Con costo la habían tolerado como regente de su hijo,y su presencia estorbaba a muchos nobles. Desesperada, Amalasuntha le propuso a su primo Deodato que compartiera el poder con ella como rey, pero la pobre mujer no pudo haberse arrimado a peor palo. Años atrás, Deodato había sido el propietario de buena parte de las tierras toscanas y había usado la extorsión y barbarie para apoderarse de algunas propiedades de sus vecinos. El pueblo de Toscana había recurrido a los buenos oficios de Amalasuntha como regente para hacer justicia, y ella había obligado a su leonino primo a devolver buena parte de lo usurpado. Deodato era un hombre apasionadamente rencoroso, pero se hizo como si todo hubiera sido olvidado. Deodato escribió cartas al senado alabando la sabiduría y belleza de Amalasuntha, prometiendo ser buen rey si aceptaban lo propuesto.Apenas Deodato compartió corona y cama con Amalasuntha, hizo algo increíblemente estúpido. Echó en prisión a Amalasuntha en una isla ubicada en medio del lago Bolsena. Lo que el imbécil de Deodato no sabía era que Amalasuntha, durante el período en que su vida se vio amenazada por las tramas de los nobles góticos, le había enviado en secreto una carta al emperador oriental Justiniano solicitando su protección y prometiéndole potestad sobre el reino si algo la sucedía a ella.Cuando le fueron con el cuecho a Justiniano, éste envió un raudo mensajero a Ravena informando a un asustado Deodato que pronto habría un ejército para deschicacarlos si algo le pasaba a Amalasuntha. Deodato, enfurecido por la actitud caballerosa de Justiniano, perdió el control y envió a unos parientes de los nobles que fueron ejecutados por Amalasuntha años atrás en misión secreta. Amalasuntha fue ejecutada en abril de 535 por estrangulamiento en su perfumada bañera por estos hombres, dando pie al rumor que su muerte se debía a una revancha por parte de los familiares de los traidores. Deodato, quien al inicio había sido muy bien aceptado por los súbditos de Amalasuntha, se vio odiado por toda la población por tan atroz crimen.La muerte de la bella Amalasuntha pareció echar un costal de sal encima de Deodato.Además de no poder volver a conciliar un tranquilo sueño dado que las pesadillas lo atormentaban aún durante la siesta, se le vino encima la guerra. Justiniano de por sí que no necesitaba mucha excusa para caerle encima al reino ostrogodo, pero con la muerte de la soberana tuvo sobrado pretexto para matar dos pájaros de un tiro: reclamar lo que él consideraba su provincia perdida y acabar con la herejía de los arios. Sobre el atolondrado Deodato primero cayó el famosísimo general Belisario, considerado mano derecha de Justiniano, y luego fue seguida la campaña por el célebre Narses, quien acabó con lo poco que quedaba del imperio destripado.La muerte de Amalasuntha resultó ser el detonante para fraccionar a los pueblos de la atestada península italiana, y así nacerían posteriormente ducados y reinos miniaturas.En esta bella península no se habría de conocer paz y unidad hasta en el siglo XIX cuando un valiente José Garibaldi habría de reunificar los miles de tuquitos de reinos que quedaron al garete tras la muerte de Amalasuntha.Por su parte, esta reina pasó a la historia como una de las víctimas más sufridas de la codicia y crueldad de los machos de la especie y la siempre sucia política.

Amalasuntha came into the world at the end of July 498 years after Christ and was the only surviving offspring of Theodoric the Great, king of the Ostrogoths who served as a liaison between the fall more or less official of the Western Roman Empire and the medieval period. Although the official date of the collapse of the Romans was the year 476, between 493 and 526 Italy enjoyed the wisdom of King Theodoric Ostrogoths, who guided the destinies of the ancient Romans as a Caesar of the best (not many ... ) even though they could not sign his name. Theodoric maintained very friendly relations with the Roman emperors of the East that sent in Constantinople. A daughter Amalasuntha proved to be very intelligent, strong and good student, and Theodoric did not suffer much by the absence of male descendants. Amalasuntha contracted marriage of convenience with a handsome but somber noble some of whom say they suffer from epilepsy. The legend says that the poor husband Amalasuntha is convulsing during the course of their conjugal duties during the wedding night, and this gave to the poor princess trauma in the exercise of its sexualidad. Cuando Theodoric died in the year 526, Atalarico left as heir to the son who had Amalasuntha in the year 518 as a result of his marriage to his taciturn noble Gothic Eutharico. Since the Ostrogoths were macho than being unable to bear and never be subjects of a woman, Amalasuntha swore loyalty and subservience to his son Athalarico, barely 8 years old. Amalasuntha remained of regent. Amalasunta immediately got to work to prevent government corruption to flourish within the rule Ostrogoths, and created a strong army to keep the barbarians continue to make their dreaded incursions in the north of their homeland. Amalasuntha came to love the power they exerted, and when his son was thirteen years it over to their guardians to give him a great education. This caused raised eyebrows among the Ostrogoths, who were a people who appreciated the more ardor in the battle and the deployment of muscle strength rather than intellectual discipline that gives a good education. Many criticized Amalasuntha as Theodoric had not clarified the ability to read to be a good rey. Amalasuntha soon discovered that some of his noble, drawing her husband had already spent a better life, considered easy targets for a plot. Amalasuntha proved that although he was a widow, not missing gills and did run to the noble who wanted to get out of your way. Amalasuntha, eager to fell good to his subjects, allowing his son to study not only with their academic tutors, but he encouraged outings to the countryside with his old cronies to play and learn to fight. This was a big mistake, because the guys just envious Atalarico taught the young to drink liquor, participate in orgies and walk lap of women with very low stew, reaching contract a venereal disease. In the year 534 Atalarico died, and say the bad language that his demise was accelerated by the erosion caused to his body for the life of francachelas wearing. Amalasuntha's position was precarious. With the cost had been tolerated as regent for his son, and their presence hampered many nobles. Desperate, he proposed Amalasuntha his cousin Deodato to share power with her as king, but the poor woman could not have been worse arrimado to stick. Years ago, Deodato had been the owner of much of the Tuscan land and had used extortion and barbarism to take over some properties of their neighbours. The people of Tuscany had used the good offices of Amalasuntha as regent to serve justice, and she had forced his cousin to return leonine good part of it usurped. Deodato was a man passionately spiteful, but it was as if everything was forgotten. Deodato wrote letters to the Senate praising the wisdom and beauty of Amalasuntha, promising to be a good king if it accepted propuesto.Apenas Deodato crown and shared a bed with Amalasuntha, did something incredibly stupid. Amalasuntha drove in prison on an island located in the middle of Lake Bolsena. What the jerk of Deodato did not know was that Amalasuntha, during the period when his life was threatened by the frames of the lofty Gothic, he had sent a secret letter to the Eastern emperor Justinian seeking their protection and promising custody of the kingdom if anything happened to her. When you were with the cuecho to Justinian, he sent a messenger to winging Ravenna informing a scared Deodato that soon there would be an army to deschicacarlos if something happened to him Amalasuntha. Deodato, infuriated by the attitude of gentlemanly Justiniano, lost control and sent to some relatives of the nobles who were executed by Amalasuntha years ago in secret mission. Amalasuntha was executed in April of 535 by strangulation in her scented bath by these men, giving rise to the rumor that his death was due to a rematch from the families of the traitors. Deodato, who at the start had been very well accepted by the subjects of Amalasuntha, was hated by the population at large for so heinous crime. Amalasuntha was executed in April of 535 by strangulation in her scented bath by these men, giving rise to the rumor that his death was due to a rematch from the families of the traitors. Deodato, who at the start had been very well accepted by the subjects of Amalasuntha, was hated by the population at large for so heinous crime. Deodato on the harum-scarum first dropped the famous general Belisario, considered the right hand side of Justinian, and then the campaign was followed by the famous denomination, who ended what little was left of the empire of death destripado. La Amalasuntha proved to be the trigger for a split the people in the crowded Italian peninsula, and later nacerían duchies and kingdoms miniatures. In this beautiful peninsula will not be known until peace and unity in the nineteenth century when a brave Jose Garibaldi would reunite the realms of thousands of tuquitos left adrift after the death of Amalasuntha. For her part, the queen went to the history as one of the victims suffered more from greed and cruelty of the male of the species and always dirty politics.

Wu Hu

2008-07-07T16:42:00.000-07:00

La emperatriz Wu Hu de la dinastía Tiang de la china del siglo V, consideraba que las felaciones degradaban a las mujeres. Naturalmente, y consecuente con la defensa de esa dignidad, una de las primeras cosas que mandó prohibir cuando llegó al poder fue la, por entonces muy extendida práctica entre sus súbditos, de realizarlas.Algo que obedecía única y exclusivamente a criterios de Estado y no como se rumoreó por ahí, con la repugnancia que la susodicha emperatriz sentía hacia ese tipo de prácticas.Pero no contenta con la prohibición y siempre dispuesta a sacrificarse por su pueblo, Wu Hu promulgó otra ley por la que todo noble que visitara la corte debía, obligatoriamente, realizarle a ella un cunilingus. Un necesario tributo que, a pesar de lo que otra vez se rumoreó por ahí, obedecía única y exclusivamente a criterios de Estado y nada tenía que ver con la desmedida afición de la emperatriz por tan húmeda práctica. Es más, varias obras antiguas muestran a la pobre consagrada en plena faena con algún noble mientras sus fieles lacayos sostienen sus paños menores.Sacrificándose por sus súbditos en un claro ejemplo de discriminación positiva. Como debe ser.

Empress Wu Hu of the dynasty Tiang of the Chinese Century V, considered the felaciones to degrade women. Of course, and consistent with upholding the dignity, one of the first things we ordered ban when it came to power was, by then a widespread practice among his subjects, realise something of that was due solely to state criteria and not as was rumored around, with disgust that the above empress felt towards such practices. But not content with the ban and always willing to sacrifice for his people, Wu Hu passed another law that all noble visit the court must, necessary to perform a cunilingus it. A necessary tribute that, despite what again was rumored around, was due solely to criteria of state and had nothing to do with the unbridled enthusiasm of the empress by so wet practice. Moreover, several older works are devoted to the poor in full fatigues with a noble while his faithful lackeys argue their cloths menores. Sacrificed by his subjects in a clear example of positive discrimination as it should be.

Doris Lessing

2008-07-07T16:37:00.000-07:00

(Kermanshah, Irán, 1919) Escritora inglesa. Nacida en Irán, donde su padre era capitán del ejército británico, en 1924 se estableció con su familia en Rhodesia del Sur (hoy Zimbabwe). Los primeros treinta años de su vida transcurrieron en Rhodesia. Allí la pequeña Doris vivió una infancia problemática, condicionada por el paisaje africano y la frustración de unos padres (sobre todo su madre) que no consiguieron realizar sus sueños.
Se educó en varias escuelas de Salisbury (Harare), pero abandonó los estudios a los catorce años y se casó dos veces: primero a los 19, con un funcionario al que dio dos hijos, y en segundo lugar, por conveniencia, con el exiliado alemán Gottfried Lessing en 1944, un camarada del partido comunista con quien tuvo otro hijo, el único que la acompañaría a Londres cuando partió definitivamente en 1949.
El contacto con África y el profundo amor que sintió por esta tierra constituyó la materia narrativa de algunas de sus novelas; el tema de la emancipación de la mujer abunda también en su obra de ficción. En 1950 ya había publicado Canta la hierba, una novela que tuvo buena acogida acerca de la vida en África, a través de la cual se opone a la política racial en años en los que el tema no era bien recibido en Inglaterra. Gracias a esa novela, y sobre todo a su tenacidad, consiguió abrirse camino en el mundillo literario londinense a lo largo de los años cincuenta, al tiempo que pasaba de manera fugaz por el partido comunista británico y consolidaba su imagen de firme detractora de la segregación racial en África del Sur.
En las cinco novelas que componen la serie Hijos de la violencia desarrolló la vida de la protagonista, Martha Quest, en el ámbito racial y social de Sudáfrica, sus esfuerzos para liberarse del círculo familiar, la disolución de su primer matrimonio (Un matrimonio convencional, 1954), su superación personal y su intervención en la política izquierdista de aquel continente, para regresar a Inglaterra en la última novela de la serie, en la que Martha Quest, ya de mediana edad, se ve envuelta en los acontecimientos sociales de su país. Las cinco novelas de este ciclo se titularon Martha Quest (1952), Un matrimonio convencional (1954), Vuelta al hogar (1957), Al final de la tormenta y La costumbre de amar (ambas de 1958).
Aparte de demostrar ser una notable autora de narraciones breves (como en el volumen Cuentos africanos, de 1951), Lessing también incursionó en el terreno de la fantasía como ángulo de observación de la condición humana, un género definido como "space or cosmic fiction". Conopus en Argos. Archivos (1979-83) es el título de este ciclo concebido bajo las leyes de aquel género y que comprende obras como The Marriages Between Zones Three, Four and Five (1980), The Sirian Experimente (1981), The Making of the Representative for Planet 8 (1982) y The Sentimental Agents in the Volyen Empire (1983). Con este ciclo rompe con el realismo tradicional y describe acontecimientos épicos y míticos de un universo ficticio.
El cuaderno dorado
Pero probablemente sea El cuaderno dorado (1962) la novela que más fama haya otorgado a Doris Lessing. El cuaderno dorado es un relato de sus experiencias colonialistas, sus relaciones con otras mujeres, su vida intelectual en los ambientes progresistas y marxistas de Salisbury y Londres, sus dificultades como novelista y su desencanto revolucionario, paralelo a la madurez y a la angustia ante la soledad.

Doris Lessing
(Kermanshah, Irán, 1919) Escritora inglesa. Nacida en Irán, donde su padre era capitán del ejército británico, en 1924 se estableció con su familia en Rhodesia del Sur (hoy Zimbabwe). Los primeros treinta años de su vida transcurrieron en Rhodesia. Allí la pequeña Doris vivió una infancia problemática, condicionada por el paisaje africano y la frustración de unos padres (sobre todo su madre) que no consiguieron realizar sus sueños.
Doris Lessing en 1956
Se educó en varias escuelas de Salisbury (Harare), pero abandonó los estudios a los catorce años y se casó dos veces: primero a los 19, con un funcionario al que dio dos hijos, y en segundo lugar, por conveniencia, con el exiliado alemán Gottfried Lessing en 1944, un camarada del partido comunista con quien tuvo otro hijo, el único que la acompañaría a Londres cuando partió definitivamente en 1949.
El contacto con África y el profundo amor que sintió por esta tierra constituyó la materia narrativa de algunas de sus novelas; el tema de la emancipación de la mujer abunda también en su obra de ficción. En 1950 ya había publicado Canta la hierba, una novela que tuvo buena acogida acerca de la vida en África, a través de la cual se opone a la política racial en años en los que el tema no era bien recibido en Inglaterra. Gracias a esa novela, y sobre todo a su tenacidad, consiguió abrirse camino en el mundillo literario londinense a lo largo de los años cincuenta, al tiempo que pasaba de manera fugaz por el partido comunista británico y consolidaba su imagen de firme detractora de la segregación racial en África del Sur.
En las cinco novelas que componen la serie Hijos de la violencia desarrolló la vida de la protagonista, Martha Quest, en el ámbito racial y social de Sudáfrica, sus esfuerzos para liberarse del círculo familiar, la disolución de su primer matrimonio (Un matrimonio convencional, 1954), su superación personal y su intervención en la política izquierdista de aquel continente, para regresar a Inglaterra en la última novela de la serie, en la que Martha Quest, ya de mediana edad, se ve envuelta en los acontecimientos sociales de su país. Las cinco novelas de este ciclo se titularon Martha Quest (1952), Un matrimonio convencional (1954), Vuelta al hogar (1957), Al final de la tormenta y La costumbre de amar (ambas de 1958).
Aparte de demostrar ser una notable autora de narraciones breves (como en el volumen Cuentos africanos, de 1951), Lessing también incursionó en el terreno de la fantasía como ángulo de observación de la condición humana, un género definido como "space or cosmic fiction". Conopus en Argos. Archivos (1979-83) es el título de este ciclo concebido bajo las leyes de aquel género y que comprende obras como The Marriages Between Zones Three, Four and Five (1980), The Sirian Experimente (1981), The Making of the Representative for Planet 8 (1982) y The Sentimental Agents in the Volyen Empire (1983). Con este ciclo rompe con el realismo tradicional y describe acontecimientos épicos y míticos de un universo ficticio.
El cuaderno dorado
Pero probablemente sea El cuaderno dorado (1962) la novela que más fama haya otorgado a Doris Lessing. El cuaderno dorado es un relato de sus experiencias colonialistas, sus relaciones con otras mujeres, su vida intelectual en los ambientes progresistas y marxistas de Salisbury y Londres, sus dificultades como novelista y su desencanto revolucionario, paralelo a la madurez y a la angustia ante la soledad.
Se trata sin duda de una de las piezas maestras de la literatura inglesa en lo que va de siglo, con su despiadado análisis de las actitudes políticas, de los tópicos y de los ritos de la vida británica tradicional. La trama, de un marcado cariz autobiográfico, gira en torno a tres temas clásicos: la necesidad de tomar un interés activo en temas políticos, la psicología de la mujer madura y el conflicto generacional.
Lessing estructura la obra en torno a una novela corta, Mujeres libres, protagonizada por Anna Wulf, que es a su vez quien redacta los cuatro cuadernos: negro, rojo, amarillo y azul, a través de los cuales va mostrando diversas parcelas de su realidad y que corresponden a diversos avatares biográficos. En la década de los 50, Anna Wulf, divorciada, reside en Londres con su hija Janet y su amiga Molly, asimismo divorciada y madre de un hijo, Tommy. Éste quedará ciego tras una tentativa de suicidio. Anna atraviesa una honda depresión, de la que le ayuda a salir la entrega a tareas sociales.
Los recuerdos de la prolongada residencia de Anna en África, que constituyen el tema de una novela que ha publicado con éxito, están recogidos en otro de los cuadernos, donde narra su acercamiento a los comunistas y su posterior decepción, así como los ecos de la Segunda Guerra Mundial tal como llegan a la remota colonia británica. Otro de los cuadernos, que completa esta visión calidoscópica de la compleja personalidad de Anna Wulf, contiene las reflexiones íntimas de ésta, sus visitas a una psiquiatra y sus fracasos amorosos. La obra ha sido considerada como la Biblia del feminismo y un clásico de la literatura de esa tendencia por su exploración de la identidad de la mujer y por abordar la crisis emocional y artística de la protagonista.
Sin embargo, la propia autora señaló que su propósito no era político, sino literario: "Cuando se es una escritora perteneciente a la tradición inglesa, una debe ser consciente y sentirse agradecida de un patrimonio que significa no tener que luchar como mujer para ser publicada y valorada. En Inglaterra las mujeres se han ganado la vida como escritoras desde hace siglos y, a veces, protestando con energía contra su destino. Mi agradecida conciencia de este patrimonio es la razón por la que suscribo la máxima de Virginia Woolf, según la cual las escritoras serán libres cuando, sentadas a escribir, no piensen si escriben o no como mujeres".

(Kermanshah, Iran, 1919) English writer. Born in Iran, where his father was a British army captain, was established in 1924 with his family in Southern Rhodesia (now Zimbabwe). The first thirty years of his life spent in Rhodesia. Hence the small Doris lived a childhood problem, conditioned by the African landscape and the frustration of some parents (especially her mother) who failed to realize their dreams. He was educated at several schools in Salisbury (Harare), but abandoned those studies to fourteen years and was married twice: first at 19, with an official who gave two sons, and secondly, for convenience, in exile German Gottfried Lessing in 1944, a comrade of the Communist party with whom she had another son, the only one that would accompany London when finally departed in 1949. Contact with Africa and the deep love she felt for this land was the subject of some of his fiction novels, the theme of women's emancipation also abounds in his work of fiction. In 1950 he had already published Sings the grass, a novel that was well received about life in Africa, through which opposes racial politics in years when the topic was not well received in England. Thanks to this novel, and especially to his tenacity, he managed to break into the London literary scene throughout the fifties, while passing on a fugitive by the British Communist Party and consolidated his image as a strong opponents of segregation racial South Africa.

In the five novels that make up the series Children of Violence developed the life of the protagonist, Martha Quest, in the field of social and racial South Africa, their efforts to rid the family circle, the dissolution of her first marriage (A conventional marriage, 1954) his personal and his involvement in leftist politics of that continent, to return to England in the last novel in the series, in which Martha Quest, and middle-aged, is involved in social events in his country. The five novels from this cycle titled Martha Quest (1952), A conventional marriage (1954), Back Home (1957), at the end of the storm and the habit of loving (both 1958).

Besides prove to be a notable author of short stories (as in the volume of African Tales, 1951), Lessing also ventured into the realm of fantasy as the angle of view of the human condition, a genre defined as "cosmic space or fiction". Conopus in Argos. Archives (1979-83) is the title of this cycle conceived under the laws of that genre and that includes works such as The Marriages Between Zones Three, Four and Five (1980), The Syrian Experiment (1981), The Making of the Representative for Planet 8 (1982) and The Sentimental Agents in the Empire Volya (1983). With this cycle breaks with the traditional realism and describes events and mythical epic of a fictional universe.

The golden notebook but booklet is probably the gold (1962) the most famous novel that has given to Doris Lessing. The gold book is a story of their colonial experience, their relationships with other women, their intellectual life in the atmospheres of progressives and Marxists Salisbury and London, their difficulties as a novelist and his revolutionary disenchantment, parallel to the maturity and anguish to the solitude.

Doris Lessing (Kermanshah, Iran, 1919) English writer. Born in Iran, where his father was a British army captain, was established in 1924 with his family in Southern Rhodesia (now Zimbabwe). The first thirty years of his life spent in Rhodesia. Hence the small Doris lived a childhood problem, conditioned by the African landscape and the frustration of some parents (especially her mother) who failed to realize their dreams.

(Harare), but abandoned those studies to fourteen years and was married twice: first at 19, with an official who gave two sons, and secondly, for convenience , With the exiled German Gottfried Lessing in 1944, a comrade of the Communist party with whom she had another son, the only one that would accompany London when finally departed in 1949.

Contact with Africa and the deep love she felt for this land was the subject of some of his fiction novels, the theme of women's emancipation also abounds in his work of fiction. In 1950 he had already published Sings the grass, a novel that was well received about life in Africa, through which opposes racial politics in years when the topic was not well received in England. Thanks to this novel, and especially to his tenacity, he managed to break into the London literary scene throughout the fifties, while passing on a fugitive by the British Communist Party and consolidated his image as a strong opponents of segregation racial South Africa.

In the five novels that make up the series Children of Violence developed the life of the protagonist, Martha Quest, in the field of social and racial South Africa, their efforts to rid the family circle, the dissolution of her first marriage (A conventional marriage, 1954) his personal and his involvement in leftist politics of that continent, to return to England in the last novel in the series, in which Martha Quest, and middle-aged, is involved in social events in his country. The five novels from this cycle titled Martha Quest (1952), A conventional marriage (1954), Back Home (1957), at the end of the storm and the habit of loving (both 1958).

Besides prove to be a notable author of short stories (as in the volume of African Tales, 1951), Lessing also ventured into the realm of fantasy as the angle of view of the human condition, a genre defined as "cosmic space or fiction". Conopus in Argos. Archives (1979-83) is the title of this cycle conceived under the laws of that genre and that includes works such as The Marriages Between Zones Three, Four and Five (1980), The Syrian Experiment (1981), The Making of the Representative for Planet 8 (1982) and The Sentimental Agents in the Empire Volya (1983). With this cycle breaks with the traditional realism and describes events and mythical epic of a fictional universe.

The golden notebook But booklet is probably the gold (1962) the most famous novel that has given to Doris Lessing. The gold book is a story of their colonial experience, their relationships with other women, their intellectual life in the atmospheres of progressives and Marxists Salisbury and London, their difficulties as a novelist and his revolutionary disenchantment, parallel to the maturity and anguish to the solitude.

It is without doubt one of the masterpieces of English literature so far this century, with its ruthless analysis of the political attitudes of the topics and the rites of the traditional British life. The plot, a sharp turn autobiographical, revolves around three classic themes: the need to take an active interest in political issues, psychology of women mature and generational conflict.

Lessing structure the work on a short novel, Free Women, starring Anna Wulf, who is who in turn drafted the four notebooks: black, red, yellow and blue, through which goes to show various plots of their reality and that correspond to various biographical avatars. In the 50s, Anna Wulf, a divorced, lives in London with his daughter Janet and her friend Molly, also a divorced mother of a son, Tommy. This is blind after a suicide attempt. Anna is experiencing a deep depression, which helps you leave the delivery to social tasks.

The memories of the prolonged residence of Anna in Africa, which are the subject of a novel that has published successful, are covered by another of the notebooks, where he tells his rapprochement with the Communists and their subsequent disappointment, as well as the echoes of the World War II as coming into the remote British colony. Another of the books to supplement this kaleidoscopic vision of the complex personality of Anna Wulf, contains the intimate thoughts of it, his visits to a psychiatrist and his amorous failures. The play has been regarded as the Bible of feminism and a classic of the literature of this trend for his exploration of the identity of the woman and to address the emotional and artistic crisis of the protagonist. However, the author stated that his purpose was not political but literary. "When is a writer belonging to the English tradition, one must be aware and appreciative of being a heritage that means not having to struggle as a woman to be released and valued. In England women have earned a living as writers for centuries and, at times, energetically protesting against his fate. My conscience appreciative of this heritage is why we endorse the maxim of Virginia Woolf, that the writers will be free when, sitting to write, not think about whether or not write as women."

Alfonsina Storni

2008-07-07T16:33:00.000-07:00

(Sala Capriasca, Suiza, 1892 - Mar del Plata, Argentina, 1938) Poetisa argentina de origen suizo. A los cuatro años se trasladó con sus padres a Argentina, y residió en Santa Fe, Rosario y Buenos Aires. Se graduó como maestra, ejerció en la ciudad de Rosario y allí publicó poemas en Mundo Rosarino y Monos y Monadas. Se trasladó luego a Buenos Aires y fue docente en el Teatro Infantil Lavardén, en la Escuela Normal de Lenguas Vivas y en 1917 se la nombró maestra directora del internado de Marcos Paz.
Alfonsina Storni comenzó a frecuentar los círculos literarios y dictó conferencias en Buenos Aires y Montevideo; colaboró en las revistas Caras y Caretas, Nosotros, Atlántida, La Nota y en el periódico La Nación. Compartió además la vida artística y cultural del grupo Anaconda con Horacio Quiroga y Enrique Amorín y obtuvo varios premios literarios.
En la década de 1930 viajó a Europa y participó de las reuniones del grupo Signos, donde asistían figuras importantes de las letras como Federico Garcia Lorca y Ramon Gomez De La Sierra . En 1938 participó en el homenaje que la Universidad de Montevideo brindó a las tres grandes poetas de América: Gabriela Mistral, Juana de Ibarbourou y ella misma. Ese año, el 25 de octubre, víctima de una enfermedad terminal, decidió suicidarse en Mar del Plata. Madre soltera, hecho que no era aceptable en su época, fue sin embargo la primera mujer reconocida entre los mayores escritores de aquel tiempo. Su trayectoria literaria evolucionó desde el Romanticismo hacia la vanguardia y el intimismo sintomático del Modernismo crepuscular. El rasgo más característico de su producción fue un feminismo combativo en la línea que se observa en el poema Tú me quieres blanca, el cual se halla motivado por las relaciones problemáticas con el hombre, decisivas en la vida de la poetisa.

Alfonsina Storni

(Room Capriasca, Switzerland, 1892 - Mar del Plata, Argentina, 1938) Argentine poet born in Switzerland. In the four years he moved to Argentina with his parents and lived in Santa Fe, Rosario and Buenos Aires. He graduated as a teacher, brought in the city of Rosario where he published poems in Rosario and World monkeys and monads. Then he moved to Buenos Aires and was teaching at the Children's Theater Lavardén, in the Normal School of Languages in 1917 and was named director of teacher internship Marcos Paz.

Alfonsina Storni began to frequent literary circles and lectured in Buenos Aires and Montevideo; worked in magazines and Caras Caretas, We, Atlantis, The Note and in the newspaper La Nacion. Also shared artistic and cultural life of the group with Anaconda Horacio Quiroga and Enrique Amorin and won several literary awards. Also shared artistic and cultural life of the group with Anaconda Horacio Quiroga and Enrique Amorin and won several literary awards. In the 1930s he traveled to Europe and participated in meetings of the group signs, where they were attending important figures of the letters as Federico García Lorca Gomez and Ramon De La Sierra. In 1938 he participated in the tribute to the University of Montevideo gave the three great American poets: Gabriela Mistral, Juana de Ibarbourou and herself. This year, Oct. 25th, a victim of a terminal illness, decided to commit suicide in Mar del Plata. Single mother, a fact that was not acceptable in its time, however, was the first woman recognized among the greatest writers of the time. His literary career evolved from Romanticism to the forefront and the intimacy symptomatic twilight of Modernism. The distinguishing feature of its production was a combative feminism on the line can be seen in the poem you love me white, who are motivated by the problematic relationship with the man, crucial in the life of the poet.

Gabriela Mistral

2008-07-07T16:26:00.000-07:00

Seudónimo literario de Lucilia Godoy; Vicuña, Chile, 1889 - Nueva York, 1957) Poetisa y educadora chilena. Hija de un maestro de escuela, con dieciséis años Gabriela Mistral decidió dedicarse ella también a la enseñanza; trabajó como profesora de secundaria en su país y como directora de escuela.
Gabriela Mistral se dio a conocer en los Juegos Florales de Chile en 1914 con el libro de poemas Los sonetos de la muerte, nacidos del dolor causado por el suicidio de su prometido, el empleado ferroviario Romelio Ureta, a quien había conocido en 1906. Estos sonetos fueron incorporados en 1922 a una colección más amplia de sus versos realizada por el Instituto Hispánico de Nueva York bajo el título de Desolación

Ese mismo año dejó Chile para trasladarse a México, a petición del gobierno de este país, con el fin de que colaborara en la reforma de la educación iniciada por Vasconcelos. En México, Gabriela Mistral fundó la escuela que lleva su nombre y colaboró en la organización de varias bibliotecas públicas, además de componer poemas para niños (Rondas de niños, 1923) por encargo del ministro de Instrucción Pública mexicano, y textos didácticos como Lecturas para mujeres (1924).
Terminada su estancia en México, viajó a Europa y a Estados Unidos, y en 1926 fue nombrada secretaria del Instituto de Cooperación Intelectual de la Sociedad de Naciones. Paralelamente, fue redactora de una revista de Bogotá, El Tiempo (sus artículos fueron recogidos póstumamente en Recados contando a Chile, en 1957), representó a Chile en un congreso universitario en Madrid y pronunció en Estados Unidos una serie de conferencias sobre el desarrollo cultural estadounidense (1930). En 1945 Gabriela Mistral recibió el Premio Nobel de Literatura.
La poesía de Gabriela Mistral
De tendencia modernista en sus inicios, su poesía derivó hacia un estilo personal, con un lenguaje coloquial y simple, de gran musicalidad, y un simbolismo que conecta con una imaginería de tradición folclórica. En sus obras expresó temas como el sufrimiento o la maternidad frustrada, así como inquietudes religiosas y sociales que responden a su ideología cristiana y socialista.
La obra de Mistral, en efecto, pasó por distintas etapas relacionadas con la temática y el estilo literario. En un primer momento, con la publicación de Desolación, existe un fuerte predomino del sentimiento sobre el pensamiento a la vez que una cercanía muy estrecha con lo religioso. En este libro aborda el tema del amor desde su propia experiencia trágica: la muerte de su amante.

Literary pseudonym of Lucilia Godoy; Vicuña, Chile, 1889 - New York, 1957) Chilean poet and educator. Daughter of a schoolteacher, with sixteen years Gabriela Mistral also decided to dedicate it to education, worked as a professor of secondary education in his country and as head of school.

Gabriela Mistral was launched at the Floral Games in Chile in 1914 with a book of poems The sonnets of death, born of pain caused by the suicide of her fiancé, the railway employee Romelia Ureta, whom they had met in 1906. These sonnets were incorporated in 1922 to a broader collection of her poems done by the Hispanic Institute of New York under the title of Desolation That same year she left Chile to move to Mexico, at the request of the government of this country, so that assist in the education reform initiated by Vasconcelos. In Mexico, Gabriela Mistral founded the school that bears his name and co-organized several public libraries, in addition to composing poems for children (children Rounds, 1923) commissioned by the Mexican minister of Public Instruction, textbooks and teaching aids as readings for Women (1924). Completed his stay in Mexico, traveled to Europe and the United States, and in 1926 she was appointed secretary of the Institute of Intellectual Cooperation of the League of Nations. In parallel, she was a editor of a magazine in Bogota, El Tiempo (Articles were collected Messages counting on posthumously to Chile in 1957), represented Chile at a conference in Madrid university in the United States and delivered a lecture of series on cultural development U.S. (1930). In 1945 Gabriela Mistral received the Nobel Prize for Literature.

The poetry of Gabriela Mistral De modernist trend in its infancy, his poetry led to a personal style, with a colloquial language and simple, of great musicality, and a symbolism that connects to an imagery of folk tradition. In his works expressed themes such as motherhood or suffering frustrated, as well as religious and social concerns that respond to their Christian and socialist ideology.

The works of Mistral, in fact, went through various stages related to the subject matter and literary style. In a first stage, with the publication of Desolation, there is a strong predominance of sentiment about thinking at the same time a very close proximity with the religious. This book addresses the theme of love from her own tragic experience: the death of her lover.

Gabriele Münter

2008-07-07T16:17:00.000-07:00

Gabriele Münter (19 de febrero de 1877 en Berlín - 19 de mayo de 1962 en Murnau am Staffelsee) fue una pintora alemana del expresionismo, fotógrafa y salvadora de las pinturas del movimiento Blaue Reiter durante la Segunda Guerra Mundial.
Los padres de Münter, eran adinerados y apoyaron su educación artística con maestros privados. En 1897 asistió a una escuela de arte para mujeres en Düsseldorf. Posteriormente empredió un viaje de dos años por Estados Unidos con su hermana y al regresar en 1901 se estableció en Múnich. La Academia de Bellas Artes de Múnich no estaba abierta para mujeres, por lo que continuó sus estudios en una asociación femenina de pintura de la ciudad. Pronto se aburrió de la educación en la asociación, por lo que cambió a la progresiva escuela de arte Phalanx, en la que trabajaba Vasily Kandinsky.
En el verano de 1903 durante una estadía en Kallmünz, Kandinsky se compromete en matrimonio con Münter, a pesar de estar aún casado, hecho que ocultan a los otros miembros de la escuela Phalanx. Münter vive abiertamente con Kandisnky como su amante, a pesar de que él no se divorcia hasta 1911. Vivieron juntos hasta 1917 y emprendieron varios viajes, incluyendo visitas a Tunez, Holanda, Italia y Francia.
Durante su primera estadía en París en 1906/07, Münter ve los cuadros de Henri Matisse y otros fauvistas, lo que cambia su estilo a largo plazo. En 1909 compra una casa en Murnau am Staffelsee donde pasa los veranos con Kandisnky y donde reciben a numerosos artistas del vanguardismo muniqués como Alexei von Jawlensky, Franz Marc, August Macke y el compositor Arnold Schönberg.
Artísticamente, Münter comienza a desarrollar un estilo abstracto propio, con brillantes colores sin mezclar, formas fuertes, todo delineado por oscuras lineas de separación. Se convierte en miembro fundadora de la Neue Künstlervereinigung München (Nueva union de artistas de Múnich) iniciada por Kandinsky y que incluia el núcleo de los artistas del Blaue Reiter.
Durante la Primera Guerra Mundial Kandinsky se ve forzado a salir de Alemania por ser ciudadano de una potencia enemiga. Entre 1915 y 1920 Münter vive en Escandinavia. Su último encuentro con Kandinsky ocurre en 1916 en Estocolmo. A partir de 1917 Kandinsky rompe todo contacto y solo años mas tarde, Münter se entera que Kandinsky se habia casado de nuevo.
A partir de 1920 Münter vive alternativamente entre Colonia, Múnich y Murnau. Debido a una constante depresión, prácticamente deja de pintar. Durante un periodo de residencia en Berlín, en 1925, produce reducidos retratos de mujeres hechos en lápiz. Es solo trás una larga estadia en París en 1929/30, que su actividad creativa coge nuevo impulso.
En 1932 regresa a su casa en Murnau donde vive con el historiador de arte, Johannes Eichner. Durante este período pinta sobre todo flores y obras abstractas. En 1937 los nazis de prohiben exhibir por lo que se retira de la vida pública. Durante Segunda Guerra Mundial Gabriele Münter escondió más de 80 obras de Kandinsky y otros miembros del Blaue Reiter, además de obras propias, salvandolas de la destrucción. Estas pinturas se las regaló a la ciudad de Múnich en 1957, donde son exhibidas en la Lenbachhaus, que de un golpe, se convirtió en un importante museo. Su casa en Murnau am Staffelsee es hoy en día un museo.

Gabriele Münter (February 19, 1877 in Berlin - May 19, 1962 in Murnau am Staffelsee) was a German expressionist painter, photographer and savior of the paintings of the Blaue Reiter movement during the Second World War.

The parents of Münter, were wealthy and supported his art education with private teachers. In 1897 he attended an art school for women in Düsseldorf. Subsequently she started her trip for two years by the United States with her sister to return in 1901 and settled in Munich. The Academy of Fine Arts in Munich was not open to women, so he continued his studies at a women's association of painting in the city. It soon bored of education in the partnership, so it switched to the progressive Phalanx art school, where she worked Vasily Kandinsky.

In the summer of 1903 during a stay in Kallmünz, Kandinsky is committed in marriage to Münter, despite being still married to conceal the fact that other members of the school Phalanx. Münter lived openly with Kandisnky as her lover, even though he did not divorce until 1911. They lived together until 1917 and undertook several trips, including visits to Tunisia, Holland, Italy and France.

During his first stay in Paris in 1906-07, Münter saw pictures of Henri Matisse and other fauvistas, which changes its style in the long term. In 1909, buying a house in Murnau am Staffelsee where he spends summers with Kandisnky and where they receive a large number of avant-garde artists such as Munich Alexei von Jawlensky, Franz Marc, August Macke and the composer Arnold Schönberg.

Artistically, Münter begins to develop an abstract style itself, not mixed with bright colours, strong shapes, all delineated by dark lines of separation. It becomes a founding member of the Neue Künstlervereinigung München (New union of artists from Munich) initiated by Kandinsky and that included the nucleus of the artists of the Blaue Reiter.

During World War Kandinsky is forced to leave Germany for being a citizen of a hostile power. Between 1915 and 1920 Münter lives in Scandinavia. His last encounter with Kandinsky case in 1916 in Stockholm. Since 1917 Kandinsky break all contact and only years later, Münter learns that Kandinsky had been married again.

Since 1920 Münter lived alternately between Cologne, Munich and Murnau. Due to a constant depression, virtually ceases to paint. During a period of residence in Berlin in 1925, produces small portraits of women made in pencil. It is only after a long stay in Paris in 1929-30, his creative activity picks up momentum.

In 1932 he returned to his home in Murnau where he lives with the art historian, Johannes Eichner. During this period, especially painted flowers and abstract works. In 1937 the Nazis banned the display so it withdrew from public life. During World War II Gabriele Münter hid more than 80 works of Kandinsky and other members of the Blaue Reiter, also works themselves, saved from destruction. These paintings were donated to the city of Munich in 1957, where they are displayed in the Lenbachhaus that of a coup, became a major museum. Her house in Murnau am Staffelsee is now a museum.

Livia

2008-07-07T16:12:00.000-07:00

Livia Drusa Augusta, también llamada Livia Drusila o Julia Augusta, nació en el año 58 a.C. hija de Marco Livio Druso Claudiano, muerto en la batalla de Filipos en el 42 a.C. por suicidio junto a Casio y Bruto, asesinos de Julio César que fueron derrotados por Octaviano y Marco Antonio. Su madre fue Alfidia, hermana de Alfidio Lurco. El diminutivo de Drusilla ("la pequeña Drusa") hace pensar que pudiera tratarse de una segunda hija.
En torno al 42 adC, contrajo matrimonio con Tiberio Claudio Nerón, un primo suyo de familia patricia. Después de la Guerra Civil que siguió al asesinato de Julio César, Tiberio Claudio Nerón estaba en el bando contrario a Octaviano; la familia sobrevivió a la persecución y se encontró con Augusto en el 39 adC. En aquellos momentos, Livia ya tenía un hijo, el futuro emperador Tiberio, y estaba embarazada del segundo, Druso el Mayor. La leyenda cuenta que Augusto se enamoró fulminantemente de ella y que se casaron un día después de que sus divorcios fueran anunciados. Aparentemente, Tiberio Claudio Nerón estuvo de acuerdo en ello y fue a la boda. La importancia del papel de los Claudios en la política de Augusto y la supervivencia política de Tiberio Claudio Nerón parecen las explicaciones más racionales para esta tempestuosa unión.
De cualquier modo, el matrimonio entre Livia y Augusto se mantuvo durante los siguientes 52 años, siempre disfrutó del privilegio de ser la consejera de confianza de su esposo.
En el 35 adC, Augusto permitió a Livia administrar sus propias finanzas y le dedicó una estatua pública. Livia tuvo su propio círculo de clientes y colocó a muchos de sus protegidos en puestos oficiales, incluyendo al abuelo de Otón y al mismo Galba.
Hermosa y hábil, pero también orgullosa, cruel y sin escrúpulos, no consiguió dar más descendencia al emperador y parece ser que aprovechó (o tal vez algo más, al menos en el caso de los jóvenes nietos de Augusto) las prematuras muertes de todos sus herederos: Marcelo, Agripa, Cayo y Lucio, para tramar y obtener el ascenso al trono imperial de su hijo Tiberio.
Murió siendo ya anciana, durante el reinado de su hijo Tiberio, en el año 29 d.C.
Fue deificada por Claudio y recibió el titulo de Augusta, después de que Tiberio se negase a hacerlo y a ejecutar su testamento, tarea que fue llevada a cabo por Caligula.

Livia Druze Augusta, also called Livia Brandy or Julia Augusta, was born in the year 58 BC, daughter of Marcus Livius Drusus Claudiano, killed at the Battle of Philippi in 42 BC by suicide along with Casio and Gross, murderers of Julius Caesar who were defeated by Octavian and Mark Antony. His mother was Alfidia, sister of Alfidio Lurco. The diminutive Drusilla ( "the small Druze" ) suggests that these were a second daughter.
In about 42 BC, he married Tiberius Claudius Nero, a cousin of his patrician family. After the Civil War that followed the assassination of Julius Caesar, Tiberius Claudius Nero was on the opposing side to Octaviano, the family survived the persecution and found Augustus in 39 BC. At that time, Livia already had a son, the future emperor Tiberius, and the second was pregnant, the Druze Mayor. Legend has it that Augustus fell in love with her and fulminant who married a day after their divorces were announced. Apparently, Tiberius Claudius Nero was in agreement that, and went to the wedding. The importance of the role of Claudia in the policy of Augustus and the political survival of Tiberius Claudius Nero seem more rational explanations for this tempestuous union. Either way, the marriage between Livia and Augustus was maintained over the next 52 years, always enjoyed the privilege of being the trusted adviser to her husband.

In 35 BC, Augustus Livia allowed to manage their own finances and dedicated a public statue. Livia had her own circle of clients and placed many of its protected posts, including the grandfather of Otto and at the same Galba.

Beautiful and clever, but also proud, cruel and unscrupulous, did not give more offspring to the emperor and it seems that took advantage of (or perhaps something more, at least in the case of the young grandchildren of Augustus) the premature deaths of all its Heirs: Marcelo, Agrippa, Cayo and Lucio, and plotting to obtain promotion to the imperial throne of her son Tiberius.

Already being old woman died during the reign of his son Tiberius, in the year 29 AD.

He was deified by Claudius and received the title of Augusta, after which Tiberius refuses to do so and execute his will, which was conducted by Caligula.

Elizabeth I

2008-07-07T16:08:00.000-07:00

Hija de Enrique VIII y de Ana Bolena, Elizabeth I de Inglaterra nació en Greenwich, Inglaterra el 7 de septiembre de 1533 época difícil y turbulenta para su padre Enrique, quien a toda costa deseaba a un hombre de heredero.
Declarada hija ilegítima cuando apenas contaba tres años de edad, Elizabeth fue aprendiendo de lo bueno y lo malo de sus propios padres. Conocía las intrigas, y rumores de la corte. Y sabía quién era quien en la nobleza inglesa. Fue criada de acuerdo al protocolo propio para una princesa. Tenía muy en claro que era lo conveniente para su vida y para InglaterraEn 1554 el parlamento decidió el restablecimiento de sus derechos a la sucesión. En 1558, a la edad de 25 años, asumió el reinado, cargo que ocupó hasta el año 1603. Para la Iglesia Protestante, significó el reavivamiento de la causa.Bajo el reinado de su hermana, María Estuardo, se hizo sospechosa de connivencia con los elementos anticatólicos del reino y, tras la desarticulación de la conjura de Thomas Wyatt, fue encerrada en la Torre de Londres, en 1544. Cuando fue entronizada en 1558, tras la muerte de su hermana, Elizabeth se convirtió en el prototipo del monarca del siglo quince. Una reina que gobernaba personalmente y autoritariamente, pero siempre rodeada de un magnífico y excelente equipo de consejeros y colaboradores.
Inglaterra pasaba por momentos difíciles. Es entonces cuando de pronto aparece en escena una princesa que repentinamente cambiaría el curso de la historia. Ella, Elizabeth, como movida por un destino preestablecido, abraza resueltamente el camino de la Reforma Protestante. Luchó incansablemente por esta causa y logró que su deseo y pensamiento se imponga. El camino no sería fácil; pero ella, inteligentemente, lo lograría. Fue una reina que concentró sus esfuerzos y energía en hacer de su reino, un núcleo de poder respetado, digno y altamente estimado.
Hubo personas y grupos que se le opusieron con dureza, pero Elizabeth hizo frente a esta coalición opositora y mantuvo con ella una lucha a vida o muerte. Se esgrimieron en su contra todas las armas, las de la guerra y de la traición; pero ella, a cada uno de los ataques, supo oponer el medio de defensa adecuado. Estableció alianzas con países vecinos. Justo es decir que, a no ser por ella, la Reforma Protestante no hubiera llegado a prosperar en Escocia. También es probable que esta reforma hubiera sido aplastada antes de tiempo en Francia y es seguro que tampoco hubiera podido plasmarse y tener su arraigo en los Países Bajos. La reina Elizabeth, pudiera decirse, fue campeona del protestantismo en el occidente de Europa. Ella misma expresaba su asombro ante el hecho de haber llegado tan lejos. "Jamás creí poder llegar a tanto" -diría alguna vez la reina Elizabeth.
Elizabeth era una de esas monarcas que tienen de antemano una conciencia clara de los deberes del gobierno. Sabía gobernar, sabía hacer valer derechos, sabía imponer obligaciones y buscaba hacer cumplir las leyes. Era una persona que gustaba de la justicia y buscaba a toda costa impartirla en la mejor medida. Todo lo que ella hacía iba encaminado en beneficio de su gobierno. Ella misma decía que eran cuatro las virtudes que un gobernante debe tener: justicia, moderación, generosidad y buen juicio.
Creía poder jactarse de poseer las dos primeras (justicia y moderación), ya que jamás se había fiado de los informes de otros, sino que había procurado llegar por sí misma al conocimiento real y completo de las cosas. Le gustaba ir al meollo del asunto y saber por sí misma acerca de lo que pasaba. No quería vanagloriarse de las dos últimas cualidades (generosidad y buen juicio), pues pensaba que eran virtudes propias del varón; sin embargo, son estas dos cualidades, precisamente, las que en alto grado le atribuye la historia. Su grandeza de corazón, por otra parte, se deja ver en muchos otros aspectos que hacían notar incluso sus enemigos.
Era una gran mujer. En los casos de peligro se le veía actuar con seguridad, infundiendo ánimo en los suyos y dándoles la suficiente fuerza para seguir adelante. Nunca, incluso en los momentos más difíciles, se le veía sombra de preocupación alguna. En cambio, siempre buscaba ella infundir con su actitud ánimos en la nobleza y confianza en su propio pueblo.
Quizá por la dureza del tiempo que le tocó vivir, reinó con mano fuerte. Sus detractores calificaban su gobierno como cruel y despiadado. La medidas que tomaba, aunque fuesen estas impopulares y dudosas, se tenían que cumplir indefectiblemente. Esto le valió que algunos la llamasen tirana
Gustaba de la paz, pero no esquivaría la guerra de considerar que fuera necesaria. Cuando se inclinaba por la paz, cuidaba de advertir que no lo hacía por temor al enemigo, sino porque le repugnaba todo derramamiento de sangre. Profunda creyente, sostenía que se debían cumplir todas las leyes, tanto las humanas como las divinas.
Mantenía una Fe infalible en la providencia y en el futuro de su nación; Enfrentada al Papa hasta el extremo de la guerra, fue excomulgada por este. Lejos de intimidarla, la excomunión fue vivida con orgullo por Elizabeth y fue una de las cosas que la hicieron más fuerte y a la vez más poderosa. No le gustaba que le hablaran de su padre o de su madre, ni quería oír hablar de su sucesor. Lo que le llenaba su horizonte visual era el "aquí" y el "ahora", el poder actual, su gobierno, su imperio, su nación.
"God save the Queen" God save the queen ("Dios salve a la reina"). Así era recibida cuando entraba en las reuniones o fiestas. La gente se inclinaba sobre sus rodillas y proclamaba al unísono la frase.Elizabeth conoció como pocos reyes las muestras intactas de veneración y acatamiento tributadas al poder de la majestad sobre la tierra. Los criados depositaban sobre la mesa, doblando la rodilla, los manjares destinados a la reina, aunque ella no estuviera presente. Y nadie le era presentado que no clavase la rodilla en tierra.
Se sabe que tras ser proclamada reina volvió a restaurar el culto protestante, implantando de nuevo las medidas anglicanas de 1552. El parlamento de 1559 restauró la Reforma en su forma Anglicana decretando la nulidad de la autoridad papal, y el Acto de Uniformidad, que hizo de la Biblia la única forma legal de la adoración. Estos estatutos representaron la voluntad de la Corona y de la Cámara de los Comunes. En la ocasión dijo Elizabeth: “Hasta este momento hemos estado pensando solamente en el aspecto Anglicano de la Reforma; es decir, hemos estado mirando este cambio religioso profundo, a través de los ojos de la iglesia oficial. De hecho, hasta este Acto de Uniformidad de 1559, hubo otra pequeñas expresiones de convicción religiosa en este país. Dejadme decir dos palabras importantes que os darán claridad. Por “uniformidad” pensamos “convenir con” o “conforme a” las doctrinas y las prácticas de la iglesia establecida por la ley que es, la iglesia de Inglaterra”.
Más tarde, por el tratado de Edimburgo (1560) apoyó la revuelta presbiteriana escocesa contra la reina María Estuardo, que en 1568 tuvo que refugiarse en Inglaterra.
Fomentó la actividad marítima y mercantil. Del mismo modo su gobierno se preocupó por la agricultura, conservando un campesinado libre y permitiendo un desarrollo de lo que se llamó "cercado de tierras" (Enclosures) . Por medio de la Poor Laws ("Leyes de los pobres" 1563-1601) se pretendió mitigar la miseria de las clases populares. Las directrices de la política exterior fueron la alianza con los poderes protestantes y el mantenimiento de una latente rivalidad con Felipe II. Desde 1568 brindó su protección a la revuelta de las provincias holandesas, lo mismo que a grupos que se oponían a un marcado catolicismo francés. En el ámbito colonial y de expansión de su comercio, Elizabeth se convirtió paulatinamente en una gran aliada del mercenismo colonial. La rivalidad anglo-hispánica estaba dada. Se dice que fue la propia Elizabeth quien autorizó de manera oficial las acciones de famosos piratas y corsarios como Francis Drake, Hawkins y otros.
Uno de los máximos problemas que enfrentaría Elizabeth sería el trágico desenlace de la reina María Estuardo, ejecutada en 1587. Al parecer Elizabeth quiso parar la ejecución, pero era ya demasiado tarde. El remordimiento siempre le quedaría. Uno de sus grandes problemas era España. Este gran problema se transformó en una gran victoria y ha pasado a ser un hito en la historia: En 1588, la flota inglesa habría de contener la invasión española, la escuadra de Felipe II, la llamada Armada Invencible. Aunque tras este combate el país quedó a salvo de todo posterior intento de conquista, más tarde, los últimos año de la reina se vieron agitados por las revueltas holandesas de 1596 a 1598, así como por graves inquietudes políticas. Ella moriría en Richmond, al oeste de Londres, el 23 de marzo de 1603 sin haber conocido el matrimonio.La historia de esta mujer quedaría grabada para siempre. Su Reino pasó a llamarse la Edad dorada de Inglaterra . Elizabeth I, “la Reina Virgen”, sin dudas un personaje trascendente en la historia de Inglaterra y de toda la Iglesia Protestante

Daughter of Henry VIII and Anne Boleyn, Elizabeth I of England was born in Greenwich, England on September 7 in 1533 difficult and turbulent time for his father Henry, who wanted at all costs a man of heir.

Declared illegitimate daughter when it barely three years old, Elizabeth was learning from the good and the bad of their own parents. He knew the intrigues, and rumours of the court. And who knew who was in the English nobility. She was brought up according to the protocol itself for a princess. She was very clear that what was convenient for her life and for England 1554 the parliament decided to restore their rights to inheritance. In 1558, at the age of 25 years, took over the reign, a position he held until 1603. For the Protestant Church, marked the revival of the case. Under the reign of his sister, Mary Stuart, was suspected of collusion with the anti elements of the kingdom, and after the dismantling of the plot of Thomas Wyatt, was imprisoned in the Tower of London in 1544. When he was enthroned in 1558, after the death of his sister, Elizabeth became the prototype of the monarch of the fifteenth century. A queen ruled that personally and authoritatively, but always surrounded by a superb and excellent team of advisers and collaborators. England was going through difficult times. That's when suddenly appears on the scene a princess who suddenly change the course of history. She, Elizabeth, as driven by a preset destination, firmly embraces the path of the Protestant Reformation. She fought tirelessly for this cause and got her wish and thought is imposed. The road would not be easy, but it intelligently, it would achieve. Was a queen who has concentrated its efforts and energy into making his kingdom, a nucleus of power respected, dignified and highly estimated.

There were individuals and groups who opposed him harshly, but Elizabeth became the face of this opposition coalition, and remained with it a struggle for life or death. It was invoked in all weapons against them, those of war and betrayal, but it, to each of the attacks, knew how to raise the appropriate means of defense. Established alliances with neighboring countries. It is fair to say that, except for her, the Protestant Reformation had not come to thrive in Scotland. It is also likely that this reform would have been crushed early in France and is not sure he could have reflected and have their roots in the Netherlands. Queen Elizabeth, would say, was champion of Protestantism in western Europe. She expressed her astonishment at the fact of having come so far. " I never thought able to reach both, " say the Queen Elizabeth ever.

Elizabeth was one of those monarchs who have a clear conscience in advance of the duties of government. I knew govern, knew enforce rights, obligations and sought to impose knew enforce the laws. She was a person who liked to justice and sought to impart any cost in the best measure. Everything she did was aimed to benefit his government. She said were four virtues that a ruler must have justice, moderation, generosity and wisdom.

I thought to boast of possessing the first two (justice and moderation), as it had never been relied on the reports of others, but had sought itself arrive at the real and complete knowledge of things. She liked to go to the heart of the matter and find out for itself about what was going on. I did not want to boast of the last two qualities ( generosity and wisdom ), because he thought they were the man's own virtues, but these two qualities are precisely those that greatly attributed history. Her greatness of heart, on the other hand, are left to see in many other aspects that were noted even her enemies.

She was a great woman. In cases of danger being seen to act with safety, instilling a spirit in them, and giving them enough strength to keep going. Never, even in the most difficult moments, she looked a shadow of concern. Instead, she always sought to instill with his attitude and mood in the nobility confidence in his own people.

Maybe because of the harshness of the time that she lived, she reigned with a strong hand. Her detractors described his administration as cruel and ruthless. The measures they took, but these were unpopular and dubious, it had to meet unfailingly. This earned her that some people call tirana.

Liked to peace, but not esquivaría considering that the war was necessary. Where's preference for peace, taking care to note that she did not fear the enemy, but because her abhors all bloodshed. Deep believer, claimed to be fulfilling all laws, both human and the divine. Fe maintained a fool proof in Providence and in the future of their nation;

Faced with the Pope until the end of the war, was excommunicated for this. Far from intimidating, the excommunication was living with pride and Elizabeth was one of the things that made it stronger and more powerful. She did not like it that you speak of your father or your mother or wanted to hear about his successor. What you fill your visual horizon was the " here " and " now ", the current power, her government, her rule, her nation. " God save the Queen " God save the queen ( "God Save the Queen " ) . Well received when it was entered in the meetings or parties. People are inclined on their knees and proclaimed in unison frase. Elizabeth known as the kings of the few intact samples of veneration and respect Untaxed to power on the majesty of the land. The servants placed on the table, bending the knee, the delicacies to the queen, but she was not present. And nobody was submitted that no nailed her knee on the ground.

It is known that after being proclaimed queen returned to restore the Protestant worship, introducing new measures Anglican 1552. The parliament of 1559 restored the Reformation as Anglican decreeing the nullity of the papal authority, and the Act of Uniformity, who made the Bible the only legal form of worship. These statutes represented the will of the Crown and the House of Commons. At the time Elizabeth said : " So far we have been thinking only in the aspect of the Anglican Alterations, that is, we have been watching this change deep religious, through the eyes of the church. In fact, until this Act of Uniformity of 1559, there were other small expressions of religious belief in this country. Let me say two important words that you will give clarity.

On the " uniformity " we " agree " or " under " the doctrines and practices of the church established by law which is the Church of England. "

Later, by the treaty of Edinburgh (1560) supported the Presbyterian Scottish revolt against the Queen Mary Stuart, who in 1568 had to take refuge in England.

It promoted trade and maritime activity. In the same way his government was concerned by agriculture, maintaining a free peasantry and allowing a development of what was called " enclosed land " (Enclosures). Through the Poor Laws ( " Laws of the poor " 1563-1601) was intended to mitigate the misery of the working classes. The guidelines of foreign policy were the alliance with the Protestant powers and the maintenance of a latent rivalry with Philip II.

Since 1568 offered its protection to the revolt of the Dutch provinces, as well as groups that were opposed to a strong French Catholicism. In the field of colonial and expansion of their trade, Elizabeth gradually became a major ally of the colonial mercenismo. The Anglo-Hispanic rivalry was given. She was Elizabeth's own an official who authorized the actions of famous pirates and privateers such as Francis Drake, Hawkins and others. One of the greatest challenges facing Elizabeth would be the tragic outcome of Queen Mary Stuart, executed in 1587. Elizabeth apparently wanted to stop the execution, but it was already too late. The remorse will always remain. One of their big problems was Spain. The big problem was transformed into a major victory and has become a milestone in history: In 1588, the English fleet would have to contain the Spanish invasion, the squadron of Philip II, the so-called Spanish Armada. Although this fight after the country was safe from all subsequent attempt at conquest, later, the last year of the queen were shaken by the riots of 1596 to 1598 Dutch, as well as by serious political concerns. She died in Richmond, west London, on March 23 1603 without having met the matrimonio. The story of this woman would be etched forever. His kingdom was renamed the Golden Age of England. Elizabeth I, " Virgin Queen " without doubt an important personage in the history of England and the entire Protestant Church.

Lillian Möller Gilbreth

2008-07-07T16:06:00.000-07:00

Lillian Evelyn (Möller) Gilbreth (Oakland, 1878-Phoenix, 1972) ingeniera, psicóloga, profesora y madre de familia numerosa es, fundamentalmente, la madre de la moderna gestión empresarial. Ella y su marido Frank Bunker Gilbreth (1868-1924) fueron los pioneros en algunas técnicas de gestión empresarial que aún se emplean actualmente en la construcción y en otras industrias. Lillian fue además una de esas primeras supermujeres, capaces de combinar una carrera brillante con una vida familiar clásica: fue una prolifica autora, obtuvo diferentes licenciaturas y fue la madre de doce hijos. Quizás encontremos a veces que es mejor recordada por su maternidad, ya que dos de sus hijos, Frank Gilbreth Jr. y Ernestine Gilbreth Carey, escribieron los populares libros Cheaper by the Dozen (1949) en y Belles on Their Toes (1950), que fueron llevados a la gran pantalla en más de una ocasión, y en los que cuentan sus experiencias en el seno de una familia grande y famosa, aunque Lillian Gilberth no solamente fue madre de familia.
La joven Lillian Evelyn Möller fue una alumna destacada en el instituto y decidió en principio estudiar música y literatura, aunque su padre no veía por ningún lado la necesidad de que una mujer accediese a una enseñanza superior, siendo de los que pensaban que le bastaban los conocimientos que le sirviesen para llevar una casa eficazmente. Pero Lillian le convenció para que la dejara asistir a clase en la Universidad de California, en Berkeley mientras viviera en casa y atendiera las tareas domésticas, y ya que estudiaba allí un primo suyo. Cuando en 1900 ella obtuvo su B.A. (Bachelor of Art, es decir, licenciatura en la rama de letras) en literatura, se convirtió en la primera mujer que recibió el alto honor de pronunciar el discurso en la ceremonia de graduación de la Universidad de California.
Después se trasladó a Columbia, pero una enfermedad la obligó a regresar a casa en California, tras un año, en dónde volvió a la universidad obteniendo en 1902 su Master en Literatura, que celebró con unas vacaciones en barco. En Boston, donde estuvo una temporada antes de embarcar fue donde conoció a su futuro marido Frank Gilberth. Frank le propuso matrimonio a Lillian tres semanas después de su regreso de Europa, y una vez juntos empezarían al tiempo que su vida matrimonial algunos de los estudios más importantes en cuestiones de dirección de empresas.
Frank Gilbreth era un hombre eminentemente práctico y con talento que llegó a montar su propia empresa constructora habiendo empezado de albañil, y que, aun no habiendo ido nunca a la escuela, siempre había estado interesado en las investigaciones para mejorar los rendimientos en el trabajo. Tras casarse con Lillian, Frank montó una consultoría de empresas en la que su mujer colaboraba. En 1910 se fueron a vivir a Rhode Island, después de que Lillian convenciera a Frank para que vendiese su empresa constructora y se dedicasen por entero a la investigación. Lillian estudió en la Universidad de Columbia. En principió quiso estudiar Inglés, pero el famoso crítico Brander Matthews no admitía mujeres en sus clases, así que se decantó por la psicología, que estudió con Ashley Thorndike. En su tesis doctoral, que leyó en 1915 con cuatro chiquillos a cuestas, y que se tituló Psychology of Management, Lillian marcó las pautas para los lógicos y sistemáticos principios de la moderna gestión empresarial, poniendo el acento en la importancia de las relaciones humanas así como la necesidad de reconocer las diferencias entre los distintos trabajadores y sus necesidades particulares desde el punto de vista psicológico. Los conceptos de justicia y felicidad estaban asimismo incluidos en un mismo análisis e interpretación de su visión de la gestión empresarial. Lo que hacía a las ideas de Lillian Gilbreth diferentes y únicas era precisamente el punto de vista que la psicología le ofrecía de la gestión empresarial, y la integración que hizo de ambas materias, siendo por lo tanto la pionera de lo que ahora se denomina psicología de la organización industrial. Este trabajo, debido a los prejuicios de su editor, que era reacio a publicar el trabajo de una mujer, se publicó bajo con el nombre de su autor en la ambigua forma de L. M. Gilbreth. Aun así, Lillian Gilbreth comenzó a tener una gran reputación como experta en el campo de la gestión industrial.
Si Frank se preocupaba en los aspectos técnicos de la eficiencia del trabajo, a Lillian le interesaba el aspecto humano del mismo. Las ideas de Lillian que durante su vida no fueron aplicadas en toda su dimensión, indicaban la dirección a la que se dirigiría la moderna gestión empresarial. Ella enunció que los trabajadores estaban motivados por diferentes factores los que llamó incentivos indirectos, entre los que se incluye el dinero, e incentivos directos, entre los que se encuentra la satisfacción propia del trabajo. Su trabajo junto a su marido ayudó a crear la standardización, los incentivos salariales y la simplificación del trabajo. Lillian fue de las primeras en darse cuenta de que los efectos de la fatiga y del estrés en el rendimiento laboral.
Hay que pensar, por todo esto en que los trabajos de los Gilbreth son una mezcla de la aplicación de los conocimientos eminentemente prácticos de Frank y la sensibilidad y la preparación académica de Lillian, ambos trabajaron desde el principio como verdaderos socios, apasionados para encontrar la mejor manera de desarrollar cualquier tarea para incrementar su eficacia y productividad en la industria. Podemos decir que lo más importante es la simplificación del trabajo, o mejor dicho, la racionalización del trabajo, basadas en respecto y la dignificación tanto de la trabajador como del propio trabajo, es lo que alguna vez se ha definido como la aplicación organizada del sentido común. Hay que reconocer que la idea, según parece, fue preconizada por Frank cuando contaba diecisiete años (o al menos eso es lo que nos ha llegado, yo personalmente veo más el talento de Lillian en todas estas investigaciones), cuando empezaba a trabajar como albañil. Sea como fuera, los Gilbreth estudiaron las maneras más fáciles y más rápidas de llevar a cabo las tareas manuales. En su libro Bricklaying Sistem (Sistemas para asentar ladrillos), Frank llegó a estudiar los movimientos que un albañil hacía para asentar un ladrillo, desde que tomaba este con su mano hasta que lo asentaba en la fábrica, y según sus estudios pudo reducir el número de movimientos necesarios de 18 a 4, logrando pasar, en ciertos trabajos de 120 ladrillos por hora a 350. Además diseñó y patentó un andamio especial con plataformas para colocar los ladrillos y el mortero, además de otros inventos, como el sistema de empaquetamiento de ladrillos que hoy conocemos como palets. Además los Gilbreth llevaron a cabo numerosos estudios acerca de la eficiencia industrial en los años siguientes, acerca de los principales factores que afectan a la productividad de los trabajadores así como la manera de mejorarla. Encontrando que una de las mejores maneras de incrementar la productividad era la de crear un organigrama, asignando a cada trabajador las tareas más adecuadas para su aptitud. Estos estudios además pasaban por el diseño de las herramientas, los diagramas de flujo de los procesos, análisis de movimientos y micro movimientos usando cámaras de cine, la cronociclografía usando técnicas especiales de iluminación, maquetas de los trazados de las factorías, mediciones de tiempo, etc. Los Gilbreth denominaron therblig (palíndromo de Gilbreth) a cada uno de los movimientos fundamentales o básicos en cada tarea, de cuyo estudio y análisis se llega a la optimización de la tarea.
Ambos esposos compartían los mismos objetivos en lo que se refiere a aplicar todo lo que descubrían acerca del conocimiento de la gestión científica a cualquier campo fuera de la industria, en este sentido emplearon esfuerzos y talento en ayudar y desarrollar con eficacia algunas técnicas quirúrgicas y métodos de rehabilitación para personas con minusvalías. Los Gilbreth impartieron talleres en su propio domicilio en los cuales directivos de empresas aprendían a usar sus técnicas, además de sus trabajos como asesores, en cuya calidad también viajaban y visitaban las empresas en las cuales sus técnicas eran aplicadas.

Lillian Evelyn (Möller) Gilbreth (Oakland, 1878-Phoenix, 1972) engineer, psychologist, teacher and mother of large family is essentially the mother of modern business management. She and her husband Frank Bunker Gilbreth (1868-1924) were the pioneers in some business management techniques that are still currently employed in the construction and other industries. Lillian was also one of those first super women capable of combining a brilliant career with a classic family life: he was a prolific author, received different degrees and was the mother of twelve children. You may find that sometimes it is best remembered for her motherhood, as two of his children, Frank Gilbreth Jr. and Ernestine Gilbreth Carey, wrote the popular books Cheaper by the Dozen (1949) and in Belles on Their Toes (1950), who were taken to the big screen in more than one occasion, and in which their experiences are at the heart of a large family and famous, but it was not only Lillian Gilberth mother.

The young Lillian Evelyn Möller was an outstanding student in high school and decided in principle to study music and literature, although her father did not see anywhere the need for a woman to accede to higher education, being of those who thought enough of her knowledge that will serve to effectively lead a house. But Lillian persuaded him to leave to attend the class at the University of California at Berkeley while living at home and meet the household chores, and studied there as a cousin of his. When in 1900 she earned her BA (Bachelor of Art, ie degree in the field of letters) in literature, became the first woman who received the high honor of delivering the speech at the graduation ceremony of the University of California .

California, after a year, where they returned to college in 1902 by obtaining her Master in Literature, which celebrated with a holiday on a boat. In Boston, where he spent a season before boarding was where she met her future husband Frank Gilberth. Frank proposed marriage to Lillian three weeks after his return from Europe, and once together to begin their married life while some of the most important issues in business management.

Frank Gilbreth was a man eminently practical and talent that came to assemble his own construction company having started bricklayer, and that, even if not having never gone to school, had always been interested in research to improve yields in the workplace. After marrying Lillian, Frank set up a consulting business in which his wife was working. In 1910 they went to live in Rhode Island, after which Lillian convince Frank to sell his construction company and is devoted entirely to research. Lillian studied at Columbia University. In principle wanted to study English, but the famous critic Brandes Matthews did not admit women in their classes, so we opted for psychology, who studied with Ashley Thorndike. In his doctoral thesis, which he read in 1915 with four kids behind him, and that was titled Psychology of Management, Lillian set the tone for the systematic and logical principles of modern business management, with emphasis on the importance of human relationships and as the need to recognize the differences between the workers and their needs from a psychological point of view. The concepts of justice and happiness were also included in the same analysis and interpretation of their vision of business management. What they did to the ideas of Lillian Gilbreth different and unique was precisely the point of view that psychology offered for corporate governance, and integration of the two subjects he did, thus being the pioneer of what is now called psychology of industrial organization. This work, due to the prejudices of his editor, who was reluctant to publish the work of a woman, was published under the name of its author in the form of ambiguous LM Gilbreth. Still, Lillian Gilbreth began to have a great reputation as an expert in the field of industrial management. If Frank is concerned about the technical aspects of the efficiency of work, Lillian was interested in the human aspect of it. It's dimensions, indicating the address to which they would address the modern business management. She stated that workers were motivated by different factors which called indirect incentives, including money, and direct incentives, including the satisfaction of the work itself. Her work with her husband helped create the standardization, wage incentives and simplification of work. Lillian was the first to realize that the effects of fatigue and stress on work performance.

We have to think, for all this that the work of the Gilbreth are a mixture of the implementation of the eminently practical knowledge and sensitivity of Frank and Lillian of academic preparation, both worked from the start as true partners, to find the passionate how best to develop any task to increase their efficiency and productivity in the industry. We can say that what is most important is the simplification of work, or rather, rationalization of work, based on respect and the dignity of both the worker and the work itself, is what once was defined as the application of organized sense common. It must be acknowledged that the idea apparently was advocated by Frank when he seventeen years (or at least that is what we have received, I personally am more talent in all these investigations Lillian), when started working as a bricklayer . Frank came to study the movements that a mason was to establish a brick, since I took this with your hand until they settled in the factory, according to his studies and was able to reduce the number movements required of 18 to 4, making passing, in certain work of 120 bricks per hour to 350. In addition designed and patented a special scaffold platform for placing the bricks and mortar, in addition to other inventions, such as the packaging system of bricks that we know today as pallets. Besides the Gilbreth conducted numerous studies on industrial efficiency in the years following, on the main factors affecting the productivity of workers as well as how to improve it. Finding that one of the best ways to increase productivity was to create an organizational chart, assigning each worker to be the most appropriate for their fitness. These studies also passed through the design of the tools, flowcharts of processes, analysis of movements and micro movements using film cameras, the cronociclografía using special techniques of lighting, models of the layout of the factory, measurements of time, and so on. The Gilbreth called therblig (palindrome of Gilbreth) to each of the fundamental or basic movements in each task, whose study and analysis leads to the optimization of the task. Both spouses share the same goals when it comes to implementing all what they discovered about the scientific knowledge to any field outside the industry, employed in this regard efforts and talent in helping develop effective and some surgical techniques and methods of rehabilitation for people with disabilities. The Gilbreth conducted workshops in their own home in which company managers learned to use his techniques, in addition to his work as advisers, whose quality is also traveling and visiting companies in which their techniques were applied.

Boadicea

2008-07-06T12:43:00.000-07:00

Boadicea consiguió aterrorizar a muchos Romanos, aunque ellos eran poderosos y bien organizados, no como los Britones. Se dispuso de un ejército de 10.000 Romanos para enfrentarse a la horda de 100.000 hombres de Boadicea. Se cuenta que ella les dio este discurso antes de la batalla:

"Nosotros los Británicos estamos acostumbrados a las mujeres comandantes de la guerra. Yo soy la hija de hombres poderosos. Pero no estoy luchando ahora por mi trono... Estoy luchando como una persona cualquiera que ha perdido su libertad. Estoy luchando por mi cuerpo magullado. Los dioses nos otorgarán la venganza que merecemos. Piensen en cuántos de nosotros estamos luchando, y por qué. Entonces ganen esta batalla o mueran. Esto es lo que yo, una mujer, pienso hacer. Dejen a los hombres vivir como esclavos, si ellos quieren. Yo no."
- Reina Boadicea, citada por Terry Deary en The Rotten Romans.

En el primer siglo de vuestra era, hubo una mujer que desafió el poder de Roma ymantuvo en jaque a sus legiones durante dos largos años (60 y 61): Boadicea, reinade los icenios, un pueblo británico de origen celta. Viuda del rey Prasutag, encabezó la rebelión de su pueblo contra los conquistadores cuando aquellos no sólo la ignoraron como heredera del trono sino que la despojaron de sus tierras y la azotaron en público. Al frente de cien mil soldados campesinos destruyó tres colonias romanas y por poco no expulsó a los invasores de las islas. Antes de cada batalla, Boadicea se paseaba en su carro delante de sus tropas arengando a sus guerreros con encendidas palabras de venganza. El ejército de Boadicea era más numeroso que el romano (en relación de 10 a 1) pero era indisciplinado v contaba con armas de calidad inférior. La lucha entre los icenios y los romanos era a muerte: no se tomaban prisioneros y se mataba hasta a los caballos y los animales de carga.
Los icenios como todos los pueblos britanos, creían en las señales divinas que enviaban determinados animales antes de las batallas. Boadicea, antes de emprender su lucha, dirigió un discurso a sus hombres mientras dejó escapar de entre sus ropas a una liebre que se dirigió en la dirección que indicaba la victoria. Estimulados por ese pronóstico, se inició la marcha de los icenios quienes saquearon y, destruyeron las colonias romanas de Camulodunum, Londinium (Londres) y Verulamium. La aventura terminó cuando enfrentaron a los legionarios de Seutonio en una feroz batalla donde murieron 80.000 icenios y sólo 400 romanos. Se cree que Boadicea se suicidó junto a sus hijas.

The Boadicea was terrorizing many Romans, but they were powerful and well organized, not like the Britons. Is it an army of 10,000 Romans to cope with the horde of 100,000 men of Boadicea. It is said that she gave this speech before the battle:

" We the British are accustomed to women commanders of the war. I am the daughter of a powerful men. But I'm not struggling now for my throne ... I'm struggling as a person anyone who has lost his freedom. I'm fighting for my body bruised. The gods grant us the revenge we deserve. Think of how many of us are struggling, and why. So to win this battle or die. This is what I do, a woman, I do. Let people live as slaves, if they want. I do not. Queen Boadicea, cited by Terry deary in The Rotten Romans.

In the first century of your era, there was a woman who challenged the power of Rome in their ymantuvo legions in check during two long years (60 and 61): Boadicea, reinade the icenios, a British people of Celtic origin. Prasutag widow of the king, led the rebellion of his people against the conquerors not only when those ignored as the heir to the throne, but the robbed of their land and whipped in public. At the front of a hundred thousand peasant soldiers destroyed three Roman colonies and narrowly missed expelled the invaders of the islands. Before every battle, Boadicea was walking into her car in front of his troops to harangue his warriors with fiery words of revenge. Boadicea's army was larger than the Roman (on 10 to 1) but was undisciplined v had weapons of inferior quality. The struggle between the Romans and icenios was dead: no prisoners were taken and killed up to the horses and animals.

The icenios like all peoples Britons, believed in the divine signs that certain animals shipped before the battles. Boadicea, before embarking on their struggle, gave a speech to his men left while escaping from their clothing to a hare that went in the direction indicated victory. Encouraged by that forecast, began the march of icenios who looted and destroyed the Roman colony of Camulodunum, Londinium (London) and Verulamium. The adventure ended when confronted by the Legionaries of Seutonio in a fierce battle which killed 80,000 icenios and only 400 Romans. Boadicea is believed to have committed suicide along with her daughters.

Frida Kahlo

2008-07-06T12:33:00.000-07:00

1907 - 1954 (Coyoacán, México)
Magdalena Carmen Frida Kahlo Calderón nace en el barrio de Coyoacán, entonces en las afueras de la Ciudad de México el 6 de julio de 1907. Fue la tercera hija del matrimonio de Guillermo Kahlo y Matilde Calderón. En el año de 1913 sufre de un ataque de poliomielitis que le afecta la pierna derecha. Inicia sus estudios en la Escuela Nacional Preparatoria en el año de 1922, que es dónde observa a Diego Rivera pintar su mural "La Creación". Es durante esa época que toma algunas clases de grabado con el maestro Fernando Fernández.
El 17 de septiembre de 1926, sufre un terrible accidente, cuando viajando en un autobús este es colisionado por un tranvía. El resultado fue rotura de la columna vertebral en tres sitios, así como la clavícula, tres costillas, la pierna y el pie derecho. Un tubo le atraviesa la cadera hasta el sexo produciéndole una triple fractura de la pelvis que le impediría tener hijos. Ese accidente la marcaría para toda su vida, habiendo sido su manantial de horrores físicos y en muchos momentos, origen de la tragedia reflejada en su obra artística.
Durante la convalescencia es cuando empieza a pintar sus primeras obras: son retratos oscuros, de formas rígidas y convencionales. Posteriormente ya con Diego Rivera, perfeccionaría su técnica pictórica.
Se reencuentra con Diego Rivera, cuando éste regresa de Rusia en 1927 pintando los frescos de la Secretaría de Educación, le lleva sus primeros cuadros y el pintor muestra interés por la artista y su obra; dos años más tarde se casaron. Ella tenía 22 años y él 43.

1907 to 1954 (Coyoacán, Mexico) Magdalena Carmen Frida Kahlo Calderon was born in the neighbourhood of Coyoacan, then on the outskirts of Mexico City on July 6, 1907. It was the third daughter of the marriage of Guillermo Kahlo and Matilde Calderon. In the year 1913 is suffering from an attack of poliomyelitis that affects his right leg. Began his studies at the National Preparatory School in the year 1922, where it is seen to Diego Rivera to paint his mural " The Creation ". It is during this time that it takes some classes recorded with the teacher Fernando Fernandez.
On September 17, 1926, suffers a terrible accident when a bus traveling in collided this is by tram. The result was a broken spine in three places, as well as the collarbone, three ribs, leg and right foot. A tube until it crosses the hip sex producing a triple fracture of the pelvis that would prevent it from having children. That would mark the accident for all his life, having been their source of physical horrors, and in many moments, origin of the tragedy reflected in his artistic work.
During the convalescence is when it starts to paint her early works: they are dark portraits of rigid forms and conventional ones. Subsequently and with Diego Rivera, improve their painting technique. It was reunion with Diego Rivera, when she returns from Russia in 1927 by painting the frescoes of the Ministry of Education, she leads her early paintings and the painter shows interest in the artist and her work; two years later were married. She was 22 years and he 43.

Marie Curie

2008-07-06T12:26:00.000-07:00

Marie Curie (de soltera Marie Sklodowska) nació el 7 de noviembre de 1867 en Varsovia (Polonia), hija de un profesor de física. En 1891 partió hacia París, donde cambió su nombre por Marie. En 1891 se matriculó en el curso de ciencias de la Universidad parisiense de la Sorbona. Pasados dos años, finalizó sus estudios de física con el número uno de su promoción. En 1894 conoció a Pierre Curie. En este momenrto, los dos trabajaban en el campo del magnetismo. Con 35 años, Pierre Curie era una brillante esperanza en la física francesa. Se enamoró enseguida de aquella fina y casi austera polaca de 27 años que compartía su fe altruista en la ciencia. Después de que Pierre Curie le propone matrimonio y la convence para que viva en París, celebran el 26 de julio de 1895, su boda con una sencillez extrema: ni fiesta, ni alianzas, ni vestido blanco. La novia luce ese día un traje azul común y corriente y luego, con su novio, monta en una bicicleta para iniciar la luna de miel por las carreteras de Francia. Marie Curie estaba interesada en los recientes descubrimientos de los nuevos tipos de radiación. Wilhelm Roentgen había descubierto los rayos X en 1895, y en 1896 Antoine Henri Becquerel descubrió que el uranio emitía radiaciones invisibles similares. Por todo ésto comenzó a estudiar las radiaciones del uranio y, utilizando las técnicas piezoeléctricas inventadas por Pierre, midió cuidadosamente las radiaciones en la pechblenda, un mineral que contiene uranio. Cuando vio que las radiaciones del mineral eran más intensas que las del propio uranio, se dio cuenta de que tenía que haber elementos desconocidos, incluso más radiactivos que el uranio. Marie Curie fue la primera en utilizar el término 'radiactivo' para describir los elementos que emiten radiaciones cuando se descomponen sus núcleos. Su marido acabó su trabajo sobre el magnetismo para unirse a la investigación de su esposa, y en 1898 el matrimonio anunció el descubrimiento de dos nuevos elementos: el polonio (Marie le dio ese nombre en honor de su país de nacimiento) y el radio. Durante los siguientes cuatro años el matrimonio, trabajando en condiciones muy precarias, trató una tonelada de pechblenda, de la que aislaron una fracción de radio de un gramo. En 1903 les concedieron el Premio Nobel de Física por el descubrimiento de los elementos radiactivos, que compartieron con Becquerel. Sin embargo, para ellos, esta gloria es un "desastre"; muy reservados los dos, devorados por la misma pasión por la investigación, sufren al verse apartados de ella y al ver su laboratorio asaltado por gente inoportuna, su modesto pabellón parisino invadido por los periodistas y los fotógrafos. A las frivolidades que les pesan, se añade un correo cada vez más voluminoso, del que se ocupan los domingos. Marie Curie se convirtió en la primera mujer que recibía este premio. En 1904 Pierre Curie fue nombrado profesor de física en la Universidad de París, y en 1905 miembro de la Academia Francesa. Estos cargos no eran normalmente ocupados por mujeres, y Marie no tuvo el mismo reconocimiento. Pierre falleció mientras cruzaba la calle Dauphine, atropellado por un carro de caballos el 19 de abril de 1906. A partir de este momento, Marie se ocupó de sus clases (siendo la primera mujer en enseñar allí) y continuó sus propias investigaciones. En 1911, Marie protagoniza un escándalo cuando establece una relación con el sabio Paul Langevin, que está casado. Parte de la prensa se lanza contra la "ladrona de maridos", "la extranjera". Este mismo año la otorgaron un segundo Nobel, el de Química, por sus investigaciones sobre el radio y sus compuestos. Fue nombrada directora del Instituto de Radio de París en 1914 y se fundó el Instituto Curie. Marie Curie sufrió una anemia perniciosa causada por las largas exposiciones a la radiación. Falleció el 4 de julio de 1934 en la Alta Saboya.
El matrimonio Curie tuvo dos hijas, una de ellas también ganó un Nobel: Irène Joliot-Curie y su marido, Frédéric, ayudante de Marie Curie desde 1925, continuó sus estudios en el campo de la radiactividad y descubrió, en 1934, en colaboración con su marido, la existencia de la llamada radiactividad artificial, recibieron el Premio Nobel de Química en 1935 por la obtención de nuevos elementos radiactivos.

Marie Curie (née Marie Sklodowska) was born on November 7, 1867 in Warsaw (Poland), daughter of a professor of physics. In 1891 left for Paris, where she changed her name to Marie. In 1891 he enrolled in the course of science from the University of Paris Sorbonne. After two years, completed her studies in physics with a number of her class. In 1894 she met Pierre Curie. In this moment, the two worked in the field of magnetism. For 35 years, Pierre Curie was a bright hope for French physics. Fell in love right away from that fine and almost austere Polish 27-year-old who shared his faith in science altruistic. After that he proposes marriage Pierre Curie and convinces to live in Paris, celebrating the July 26, 1895, her wedding with an extreme simplicity: no party or alliance, nor white dress. The bride wears a suit that day ordinary blue and then with her boyfriend, ride a bicycle to start the honeymoon on the roads of France. Marie Curie was interested in the recent discoveries of new types of radiation. Wilhelm Roentgen discovered X-rays in 1895, and in 1896 Antoine Henri Becquerel discovered that uranium invisible rays emitted similar. For all this she began to study radiation from the uranium and using piezoelectric technology invented by Pierre, carefully measured radiation in pechblenda, a mineral that contains uranium. When she saw that radiation from the ore were more intense than those of the uranium itself, she realized she had to be unknown elements, even more radioactive uranium. Marie Curie was the first to use the word " radioactive " to describe the elements that emit radiation when they break down their nuclei. Her husband finished her work on magnetism to join the investigation of his wife and marriage in 1898 announced the discovery of two new elements: polonium (Marie gave him that name in honor of their country of birth) and the radio. During the following four years of marriage, working in very precarious conditions, tried a ton of pechblenda, which isolated a fraction of an ounce of radio. In 1903 they awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics for the discovery of radioactive elements, which they shared with Becquerel. However, for them, this glory is a " disaster ", both very reserved, devoured by the same passion for research, are to be removed from her and seeing her untimely laboratory assaulted by people, their modest pavilion invaded by Parisian journalists and photographers. At tatting they weigh, it adds an increasingly voluminous mail from that address on Sunday. Marie Curie became the first woman to receive this award. In 1904 Pierre Curie was appointed professor of physics at the University of Paris in 1905 and a member of the French Academy. These charges were not normally occupied by women, and Marie did not have the same recognition. Pierre died while crossing the street Dauphine, run over by a car of the horses on April 19, 1906. From that moment, Marie took up their classes (being the first woman to teach there) and continued their own investigations. In 1911, Marie stars in a scandal when it establishes a relationship with the scholar Paul Langevin, who is married. Part of the press is launched against the " thief of husbands " " the foreign. " That same year awarded a second Nobel, the Chemistry, for his research on the radio and its compounds. She was named director of the Institute of Radio Paris in 1914 and founded the Institut Curie. Marie Curie suffered a pernicious anemia caused by long exposure to radiation. She died on July 4 1934 in the Haute Savoie.
The couple had two daughters Curie, one of them also won a Nobel: Irène Joliot-Curie and her husband, Frederic, assistant to Marie Curie since 1925, she continued her studies in the field of radioactivity and discovered in 1934 in collaboration with her husband, the existence of the so-called artificial radioactivity, received the Nobel Prize for Chemistry in 1935 for the acquisition of new radioactive elements.

Mary Shelley

2008-07-06T12:24:00.000-07:00

Mary Shelley was born Mary Wollstonecraft Godwin in Somers Town, London, in 1797– 1 February 1851) she was a British novelist, short story writer, dramatist, essayist, biographer, and travel writer, best known for her Gothic novel Frankenstein: or, The Modern Prometheus (1818). She also edited and promoted the works of her husband, the Romantic poet and philosopher Percy Bysshe Shelley. Her father was the political philosopher William Godwin, and her mother was the philosopher and feminist Mary Wollstonecraft.
After Mary Godwin's mother died giving birth to her, she and her older half-sister, Fanny Imlay, were raised by her father. When Mary was three, Godwin married his neighbour, Mary Jane Clairmont. Godwin provided his daughter with a rich, if informal, education, encouraging her to adhere to his liberal political theories. In 1814, Mary Godwin fell in love with one of her father’s political followers, the married Percy Bysshe Shelley. Together with Mary's stepsister, Claire Clairmont, they left for France and travelled through Europe; upon their return to England, Mary was pregnant. Over the next two years, she and Percy faced ostracism, constant debt, and the death of their prematurely born daughter. They married in late 1816 after the suicide of Percy Shelley's first wife, Harriet.
In 1817, the couple famously spent a summer with Lord Byron, John William Polidori, and Claire Clairmont near Geneva, Switzerland, where Mary conceived the idea for her novel Frankenstein. The Shelleys left Britain in 1818 for Italy, where their second and third children died before Mary Shelley gave birth to her last and only surviving child, Percy Florence. In 1822, her husband drowned when his sailing boat sank during a storm in the Bay of La Spezia. A year later, Mary Shelley returned to England and from then on devoted herself to the upbringing of her son and a career as a professional author. The last decade of her life was dogged by illness, probably caused by the brain tumour that was to kill her at the age of 53.
Until the 1970s, Mary Shelley was known mainly for her efforts to publish Percy Shelley's works and for her novel Frankenstein, which remains widely read and has inspired many theatrical and film adaptations. Recent scholarship has yielded a more comprehensive view of Mary Shelley’s achievements. Scholars have shown increasing interest in her literary output, particularly in her novels, which include the historical novels Valperga (1823) and Perkin Warbeck (1830), the apocalyptic novel The Last Man (1826), and her final two novels, Lodore (1835) and Falkner (1837). Studies of her lesser-known works such as the travel book Rambles in Germany and Italy (1844) and the biographical articles for Dionysius Lardner's Cabinet Cyclopaedia (1829–46) support the growing view that Mary Shelley remained a political radical throughout her life. Mary Shelley's works often argue that cooperation and sympathy, particularly as practised by women in the family, were the ways to reform civil society. This view was a direct challenge to the individualistic Romantic ethos promoted by Percy Shelley and the Enlightenment political theories articulated by her father, William Godwin.
Mary was the second child of the feminist philosopher, educator, and writer and the first child of the philosopher, novelist, and journalist William Godwin. Wollstonecraft died of puerperal fever ten days after Mary was born. Godwin was left to bring up Mary, along with her older half-sister, Fanny Imlay, Wollstonecraft's child by the American speculator Gilbert Imlay. A year after Wollstonecraft's death, Godwin published his Memoirs of the Author of A Vindication of the Rights of Woman (1798), which he intended as a sincere and compassionate tribute. However, because the Memoirs revealed Wollstonecraft's affairs and her illegitimate child, they were seen as shocking. Mary Godwin read these memoirs and her mother's books, and was brought up to cherish her mother's memory.
Mary's earliest years were happy ones, judging from the letters of William Godwin's housekeeper and nurse, Louisa Jones. But Godwin was often deeply in debt; feeling that he could not raise the children by himself, he cast about for a second wife. In December 1801, he married Mary Jane Clairmont, a well-educated woman with two young children of her own—Charles and Claire. Most of Godwin’s friends disliked his new wife, describing her as quick-tempered and quarrelsome; but Godwin was devoted to her, and the marriage was a success. Mary Godwin, on the other hand, came to detest her stepmother. William Godwin's 19th-century biographer C. Kegan Paul later suggested that Mrs Godwin had favoured her own children over Mary Wollstonecraft’s.
Together, the Godwins started a publishing firm called M. J. Godwin, which sold children's books as well as stationery, maps, and games. However, the business did not turn a profit, and Godwin was forced to borrow substantial sums to keep it going. He continued to borrow to pay off earlier loans, compounding his problems. By 1809, Godwin's business was close to failure and he was "near to despair". Godwin was saved from debtor's prison by philosophical devotees such as Francis Place, who lent him further money.
/wiki/Image:Polygon.jpgThe Polygon in Somers Town, London, between Camden Town and St Pancras, where Mary Godwin was born and spent her earliest years.
Though Mary Godwin received little formal education, her father tutored her in a broad range of subjects. He often took the children on educational outings, and they had access to his library and to the many intellectuals who visited him, including the Romantic poet Samuel Taylor Coleridge and the former vice-president of the United States Aaron Burr. Godwin admitted he was not educating the children according to Mary Wollstonecraft's philosophy as outlined in works such as A Vindication of the Rights of Woman (1792), but Mary Godwin nonetheless received an unusual and advanced education for a girl of the time. She had a governess, a daily tutor, and read many of her father's children's books on Roman and Greek history in manuscript. For six months in 1811, she also attended a boarding school in Ramgate. Her father described her at fifteen as "singularly bold, somewhat imperious, and active of mind. Her desire of knowledge is great, and her perseverance in everything she undertakes almost invincible."
In June 1812, her father sent Mary to stay with the Dissenting family of the radical William Baxter, near Dundee, Scotland. To Baxter, he wrote, "I am anxious that she should be brought up ... like a philosopher, even like a cynic." Scholars have speculated that she may have been sent away for her health, to remove her from the seamy side of business, or to introduce her to radical politics. Mary Godwin revelled in the spacious surroundings of Baxter's house and in the companionship of his four daughters, and she returned north in the summer of 1813 for a further stay of ten months. In the 1831 introduction to Frankenstein, she recalled: "I wrote then—but in a most common-place style. It was beneath the trees of the grounds belonging to our house, or on the bleak sides of the woodless mountains near, that my true compositions, the airy flights of my imagination, were born and fostered."
A Vindication of the Rights of Woman: with Strictures on Political and Moral Subjects 1792, written by the eighteenth-century British feminist Mary Wollstonecraft, is one of the earliest works of feminist philosophy. In it, Wollstonecraft responds to the educational and political theorists of the eighteenth century who wanted to deny women an education. She argues that women ought to have an education commensurate with their position in society, claiming that women are essential to the nation because they educate its children and because they could be "companions" to their husbands, rather than mere wives. Instead of viewing women as ornaments to society or property to be traded in marriage, Wollstonecraft maintains that they are human beings deserving of the same fundamental rights as men.
Wollstonecraft was prompted to write the Rights of Woman by Charles Maurice de Talleyrand-Périgord's 1791 report to the French National Assembly which stated that women should only receive a domestic education; she used her commentary on this specific event to launch a broad attack against sexual double standards and to indict men for encouraging women to indulge in excessive emotion. Wollstonecraft wrote the Rights of Woman hurriedly in order to respond directly to ongoing events; she intended to write a more thoughtful second volume, but she died before completing it.
While Wollstonecraft does call for equality between the sexes in particular areas of life, such as morality, she does not explicitly state that men and women are equal. Her ambiguous statements regarding the equality of the sexes have since made it difficult to classify Wollstonecraft as a modern feminist, particularly since the word and the concept were unavailable to her. Although it is commonly assumed now that the Rights of Woman was unfavourably received, this is a modern misconception based on the belief that Wollstonecraft was as reviled during her lifetime as she became after the publication of William Godwin's Memoirs of the Author of A Vindication of the Rights of Woman (1798). The Rights of Woman was actually well-received when it was first published in 1792. One biographer has called it "perhaps the most original book of [Wollstonecraft's] century".

Natalie Clifford Barney

2008-07-06T12:19:00.000-07:00

Natalie Clifford Barney was born in Drayton, Ohio on the 31st October 1876 and died in Paris, France on the 2nd February 1972 (age 95) was an American expatriate who lived, wrote and hosted a literary salon in Paris. She was a noted poet, memoirist and epigrammatist.
Barney's salon was held at her home on Paris's Left Bank for more than 60 years and brought together writers and artists from around the world, including many leading figures in French literature along with American and British Modernists of the Lost Generation. She worked to promote writing by women and formed a "Women's Academy" in response to the all-male French Academy while also giving support and inspiration to male writers from Remy de Gourmont to Truman Capote.
She was openly lesbian and began publishing love poems to women under her own name as early as 1900, considering scandal as "the best way of getting rid of nuisances". In her writings she supported feminism, paganism and pacifism. She opposed monogamy and had many overlapping, long and short-term relationships, including an on-and-off romance with poet Renée Vivien and a 50-year relationship with painter Romaine Brooks. Her life and love affairs served as inspiration for many novels, ranging from the salacious French bestseller Sapphic Idyll to The Well of Loneliness, arguably the most famous lesbian novel of the 20th century.

Amelia Earhart

2008-07-05T08:00:00.000-07:00

Tenía el rostro altivo, el cuerpo de una atleta y el alma cautivada por la aventura. Nadie pudo decirle nunca lo que podía o no podía hacer con su vida. Fue una mujer atípica para ese primer tercio del siglo XX en el que le tocó vivir y sentir, y que hizo suyo a golpe de efecto. Amelia Earhart vivió la era dorada de la aviación, cuando se hacían descubrimientos y se superaban marcas todos los días, marcas que ella siempre conseguía batir con tesón y una voluntad de hierro.
Amelia Earhart desapareció en el cielo justo al cumplir los cuarenta años. Aún era joven, hermosa y aguerrida, pero dar la vuelta al mundo en avión iba a ser su última aventura. Lo había decidido poco antes de su último despegue, ese que la alejó de la tierra para siempre y la encumbró a la leyenda, donde su misteriosa desaparición sigue alimentando teorías sobre lo que realmente les pasó a ella y a su navegante, Fred Noonan, aquella tarde de julio de 1937.
Dicen los que la conocieron que era fuerte, carismática y muy testaruda, cualidades que la llevaron pronto a ser lo que fue: la mujer más reconocida en el mundo de la aviación, cuando éste era un terreno debidamente acotado al género masculino. Y fue decidida, por eso, desde que voló por primera vez a los 22 años supo que aquélla iba a ser su vida. Llamó la atención casi desde el principio, y no sólo por su porte de acróbata alemana, sino por esas ganas suyas de no ponerse límites nunca, de llegar siempre un poco más alto que los demás.
Amelia fue decidida y fue valiente. Tras sus primeros vuelos, en los que ya había hecho caer varios récords de altitud y resistencia, la eligieron para ser la primera mujer en realizar un viaje en avión que cruce el Atlántico. El vuelo se llevó a cabo en 1928, sólo un año después del primer viaje transoceánico, efectuado por Charles Lindbergh (con quien, por cierto, Amelia guardaba un asombroso parecido físico que le concedió el apelativo de ‘Lady Lindy’), y ahí la Earhart fue una mera pasajera, pero fue la primera pasajera mujer, la primera en atreverse a hacer ese largo, pesado y arriesgado viaje (para la época era casi tan peligroso como lo es hoy un viaje espacial). El promotor de tal aventura, George Palmer Puttman, un editor neoyorquino, fue quien la había escogido y quien comenzó a hacer de representante de la intrépida aviadora.
A su regreso a los Estados Unidos, a Amelia sólo le rondaba una idea por la cabeza: intentar el mismo itinerario, pero esta vez pilotando ella su propio avión y hacerlo completamente sola. Desde Lindbergh nadie había cruzado el Atlántico sin escalas en solitario. Ella lo haría y no sólo eso, ya que mejoraría notablemente el tiempo de su colega varón, todo un hito para la época. Para entonces se había hecho tan popular, que en 1935 fue elegida la mujer más conocida de Estados Unidos, sólo superada por Eleanor Roosevelt.
En la cima de su popularidad, Amelia decidió acometer su misión más arriesgada: daría la vuelta al mundo en avión, algo que nadie había siquiera imaginado en aquellos años. Para llevar a cabo semejante empresa contrató a Fredrick J. Noonan, con mucha experiencia en viajes sobre el océano y uno de los mejores ayudantes de vuelo que pudo encontrar.
La primera idea de Amelia era hacer el recorrido del planeta de Este a Oeste, saliendo hacia el Atlántico y regresando sobre las aguas del Pacífico. Pero un accidente en los preparativos les hace retrasarse y varían el itinerario, para evitar la climatología adversa de los monzones. Parten finalmente en mayo de 1939 de Florida.
El viaje discurrió según todos los parámetros previstos hasta despegar de su última escala, Lae, en Nueva Guinea. Fue un 2 de julio, y les separaban 7.000 millas de Estados Unidos, las últimas 7.000 millas después de haber recorrido ya más de 22.000… pero éstas últimas son todas sobre el Pacífico y el peligro es notable. Lo último que se supo de ellos fue una transmisión hablando de la escasez de combustible y luego, el silencio.
Se les buscó con intensidad, incluso por petición expresa del presidente Roosevelt, que puso a disposición de la causa 9 barcos y 66 aviones. Pero todo fue inútil. Como ocurriera con Saint-Exúpery algunos años más tarde, el misterio rodeó la desaparición de avión y ocupantes, sin que nada se supiera de ellos por más empeño que se puso en ello. El autor de ‘El Principito’ fue sacado de las aguas sesenta años después de perderse en ellas, pero de Amalia sigue sin saberse realmente qué le pasó en aquella madrugada de julio. Ella y su copiloto, Noonan, entraron a formar parte de la leyenda negra de la aviación, que se cobró sus vidas en misteriosas circunstancias. Hoy un museo, su loado recuerdo y la idea de echar luz sobre el asunto, aún mueven a numerosos enamorados de Amalia y su bravura en el mundo entero

She had his face haughty, an athlete's body and soul captivated by the adventure. No one could never tell what they could or could not do with your life. A woman was atypical for that first third of the twentieth century in which he lived and felt, and endorsed a coup indeed. Amelia Earhart lived the golden era of aviation, when discoveries were made and brands exceeded every day, brands that she always managed to beat them with determination and an iron will.
Amelia Earhart disappeared into the sky just when they turn forty years. I was still young, beautiful and hardened, but around the world by air would be her last adventure. We had decided shortly before his last-off, that that left the land forever and rise to the legend, where his mysterious disappearance continues to feed theories about what really happened to her and her navigator, Fred Noonan, that afternoon July 1937.
They say those who knew that there was a strong, charismatic and very stubborn, qualities that led quickly to what it was: the most recognized women in the world of aviation, when he was a limited field due to male gender. And it was decided, therefore, since she flew for the first time at age 22 knew that it would be her life. He drew attention almost from the beginning, and not only because of his habit of German acrobat, but for those eager not to endorse limits ever, always reaching a little higher than others.
Amelia was determined and was brave. After their first flights, which had already dropped several records in altitude and endurance, to be elected the first woman to make a trip by plane to cross the Atlantic. The flight was conducted in 1928, just one year after the first transoceanic voyage, conducted by Charles Lindbergh (who, incidentally, Amelia kept a striking physical resemblance that gave him the nickname of ( Lady Lindy ), and hence the Earhart was a mere passenger, but it was the first woman passenger, the first to dare to make such a lengthy, cumbersome and risky journey (for the season was almost as dangerous as it is today a space travel). The promoter of this adventure, George Palmer Puttman, a New Yorker editor, who had been chosen and I began to do as the representative of the intrepid aviator.
On her return to the United States, to Amelia just around the head by an idea: try the same route, but this time she pilots her own plane and do it all alone. Since no one had Lindbergh crossed the Atlantic nonstop solo. She would do and not only that, as it would significantly enhance the time of her fellow man, a milestone for the season. By then it had become so popular, which in 1935 was elected the best known women in the United States, second only to Eleanor Roosevelt.
At the peak of her popularity, Amelia decided to undertake its mission more risky: would the world tour by plane, something that no one had even imagined in those years. To carry out such a company hired Fredrick J. Noonan, with a lot of experience in travel over the ocean and one of the best assistants flight she could find.
The first idea was to make Amelia tour of the planet from East to West, going out into the Atlantic and back on the waters of the Pacific. But an accident in preparing them to be delayed and vary the route to avoid the adverse weather of the monsoon. Finally split in May 1939 in Florida.
The trip discurrió as all the parameters to take off from its last stop, Lae, New Guinea. It was a July 2, 7000 miles separating them from the United States, the last 7000 miles after having already traveled more than 22,000 ... but the latter are all over the Pacific and the danger is remarkable. The last thing we knew of them was talking about a transfer of fuel shortages and then, silence.They were sought with intensity, even at the express request of President Roosevelt, which was made available to the cause 9 boats and 66 aircraft. But it was all useless. As happened with Saint-Exupery few years later, the mystery surrounding the disappearance of the plane and occupants, nothing was known of them for more effort that was put into this. The author of " The Little Prince " was taken from the waters sixty years after getting lost in them, but Amalia is still not known what really happened that morning in July. She and her co-pilot, Noonan, became part of the black legend of aviation, which claimed their lives in mysterious circumstances. Now a museum, praised the idea of remembrance and shed light on the matter, even moving to numerous lovers Amalia and her bravery in the world

Cleopatra

2008-07-05T07:57:00.000-07:00

(VII) Última reina de Egipto, perteneciente a la dinastía de los Lágidas o Ptolomeos (Alejandría, 69 - 30 a. C.). Hija de Ptolomeo XII, fue casada con su propio hermano Ptolomeo XIII, con quien heredó el Trono en el año 51 a. C. Pronto estallaron los conflictos entre los dos hermanos y esposos, que llevaron al destronamiento de Cleopatra.
Sin embargo, su suerte cambió al llegar hasta Egipto las luchas civiles de Roma: persiguiendo a su enemigo Pompeyo, Julio César fue a Egipto y tomó partido por Cleopatra en el conflicto con su hermano. Durante la llamada «Guerra Alejandrina» (48-47 a. C.) murieron tanto Pompeyo como Ptolomeo XIII y tuvo lugar el incendio de la legendaria Biblioteca de Alejandría, que se perdió para siempre.

Cleopatra fue repuesta en el Trono por César, que se había convertido en su amante (46 a. C.); y contrajo matrimonio de nuevo con su otro hermano, Ptolomeo XIV, a quien manejó a su antojo. Cleopatra trató de utilizar su influencia sobre César para restablecer la hegemonía de Egipto en el Mediterráneo oriental como aliada de Roma; y el nacimiento de un hijo de ambos -Ptolomeo XV o Cesarión- parecía reforzar esa posibilidad.
Tras el asesinato de César en el 44 a. C., Cleopatra intentó repetir la maniobra seduciendo a su inmediato sucesor, el cónsul Marco Antonio, que por aquel entonces luchaba con Augusto por el poder (36 a. C.). Cleopatra y Antonio impusieron su fuerza en Oriente creando un nuevo reino helenístico capaz de conquistar Armenia en el 34.

(VII) last queen of Egypt, belonging to the dynasty of the Ptolemies or Lágidas (Alexandria, 69 - 30 BC). Daughter of Ptolemy XII, was married to her own brother Ptolemy XIII, who inherited the throne in the year 51 a. C. Soon conflicts broke out between two brothers and husbands, who led the dethronement of Cleopatra.
However, her luck changed when you reach Egypt until civil strife in Rome: chasing his enemy Pompey, Julius Caesar went to Egypt and Cleopatra took the side in the conflict with his brother. During the so-called ( War Alejandrina ) (48-47 BC) died while Pompey as Ptolemy XIII and the fire took place in the legendary Library of Alexandria, which was lost forever.
Cleopatra was in response to the Throne by Caesar, who had become his lover (46 BC), and married again with his other brother, Ptolemy XIV, who drove at will. Cleopatra tried to use its influence over Cesar to restore the hegemony of Egypt in the eastern Mediterranean as an ally of Rome and the birth of a son, Ptolemy XV or Cesarión-appeared to reinforce that possibility.
After the assassination of Caesar in 44 a. C., Cleopatra tried to repeat the maneuver seducing his immediate successor, the consul Marco Antonio, then struggled for power with Augustus (36 BC). Anthony and Cleopatra imposed their strength in the East creating a new Hellenistic kingdom is capable of conquering Armenia at 34.

Hypatia of Alexandria

2008-07-05T07:54:00.000-07:00

Hypatia of Alexandria was born between AD 350 and 370 – 415) she was a Greek scholar from Alexandria in Egypt, She considered to be the first notable woman in mathematics, who also taught philosophy and astronomy. She lived in Roman Egypt, and was killed by a Coptic Christian mob who blamed her for religious turmoil. She has been hailed as a "valiant defender of science against religion", and some suggest that her murder marked the end of the Hellenistic Age.
A Neoplatonist philosopher, she followed the school characterized by the 3rd century thinker Plotinus, and discouraged mysticism while encouraging logical and mathematical studies.
Hypatia was the daughter of Theon, who was her teacher and the last known mathematician associated with the Musaeum of Alexandria. She traveled to both Athens and Italy to study, before becoming head of the Platonist school at Alexandria in approximately AD 400. According to the Byzantine Suda, she worked as teacher of philosophy, teaching the works of Plato and Aristotle. It is believed that there were both Christians and foreigners among her students.
Although Hypatia was herself a pagan, she was respected by a number of Christians, and later held up by Christian authors as a symbol of virtue. The Suda controversially declared her "the wife of Isidore the Philosopher" but agreed she had remained a virgin.
Hypatia rebuffed a suitor by showing him her menstrual rags, claiming they demonstrated that there was "nothing beautiful" about carnal desires.
Hypatia maintained correspondence with her former pupil Bishop of Ptolomais Synesius of Cyrene. Together with the references by Damascius, these are the only writings with descriptions or information from her pupils that survive.
The contemporary Christian historiographer Socrates Scholasticus described her in his Ecclesiastical History:

Lee Miller

2008-07-05T07:53:00.000-07:00

Elizabeth 'Lee' Miller, Lady Penrose ( 23 April 1907 - 21st July 1077 ) was an American photographer. Born in Poughkeepsie, New York State in 1907, she was a successful fashion model in New York City in the 1920s before going to Paris where she became an established fashion and fine art photographer. During the Second World War, she became an acclaimed war correspondent for Vogue magazine covering events such as the London Blitz, the liberation of Paris, and the concentration camps at Buchenwald and Dachau.
Early Life Elizabeth Miller was born on April 23, 1907 in Poughkeepsie, New York. Her parents were Theodore and Florence Miller (née MacDonald). Her father was of German descent, and her mother a Canadian of Scottish and Irish descent. She had a younger brother named Erik, and older brother named John. Theodore always favored Elizabeth, and he often used her as a model for his amateur photography. When Elizabeth was seven years old, she was raped while staying with a family friend in Brooklyn. Soon after, it was realized that Elizabeth had contracted gonorrhea.

Career - Modelling... Her father, Theodore Miller, an engineer, inventor and businessman, introduced Lee and her brothers, John and Erik, to photography from an early age. She was his model--with many stereoscopic photographs taken of a teenage Lee in the nude--and he also showed her technical aspects of the art. At age 19 she was stopped from walking in front of a car on a Manhattan street by the founder of Vogue magazine, Condé Nast, thus launching her modeling career when she appeared on the cover of the March 1927 edition in an illustration by George Lepape. For the next two years, she was one of the most sought after models in New York, photographed by the likes of Edward Steichen, Arnold Genthe, and Nickolas Murray. A photograph of Lee by Steichen was used to advertise a female hygienic product (Kotex) causing a scandal.
Photography ... In 1929 she traveled to Paris with the intention of apprenticing herself to the surrealist artist and photographer Man Ray. Although, at first, he insisted that he did not take students, Miller soon became his photographic assistant, as well as his lover and muse. While she was in Paris, she began her own photographic studio, often taking over Man Ray's fashion assignments to enable him to concentrate on his painting. In fact, many of the photographs taken during this period and credited to Man Ray were actually taken by Lee. Together with Man Ray, she rediscovered the photographic technique of solarisation. She was an active participant in the surrealist movement, with her witty and humorous images. Amongst her circle of friends were Pablo Picasso, Paul Éluard, and Jean Cocteau. She even appeared as a statue that comes to life in Cocteau's The Blood of a Poet (1930).
After leaving Man Ray and Paris in 1932, she returned to New York and established a portrait and commercial photography studio with her brother Erik as her darkroom assistant. During this year she was included in the Modern European Photography exhibition at the Julien Levy Gallery in New York. In 1933 Levy gave Miller the only solo exhibition of her life. Among her portrait clients were the surrealist artist Joseph Cornell, actresses Lilian Harvey and Gertrude Lawrence, and the African-American cast of the Virgil Thomson-Gertrude Stein opera Four Saints in Three Acts (1934).
In 1934, she abandoned her studio to marry Egyptian businessman, Aziz Eloui Bey, who had come to New York to buy equipment for the Egyptian Railways. Although she did not work as a professional photographer during this period, the photographs she took while living in Egypt with Bey, including "Portrait of Space", are regarded as some of her most striking surrealist images. By 1937, Lee had grown bored with her life in Cairo and she returned to Paris, where she met her future husband, the British surrealist painter and curator Roland Penrose. Her photographs were not included in another exhibition until 1955, when her work was displayed with The Family of Man exhibition at the Museum of Modern Art in New York City.
World War II ... With the outbreak of the Second World War, Miller had separated from Bey and was living in Hampstead, London with Roland when the bombing of the city began. Ignoring pleas from friends and family to return to the US, Miller embarked on a new career in photojournalism as the official war photographer for Vogue documenting the Blitz. Lee was accredited into the U.S. Army as a war correspondent for Condé Nast Publications from December 1942. She teamed up with the American photographer David E. Scherman, a Life Magazine correspondent on many assignments. Miller travelled to France less than a month after D-Day and recorded the first use of napalm at the siege of St. Malo, the liberation of Paris, the battle for Alsace, and the horror of the Nazi concentration camps at Buchenwald and Dachau. One photograph by Scherman of Miller in the bathtub of Adolf Hitler's house in Munich is one of the most iconic images from the Miller-Scherman partnership.
During this time, Miller photographed dying children in a Vienna Hospital, peasant life in post-war Hungary and finally the execution of Prime Minister Lazlo Bardossy. After the war she continued to work for Vogue for a further 2 years, covering fashion and celebrities.

England ... After returning to Britain from eastern Europe, Lee started to suffer from severe episodes of clinical depression and what later became known as post-traumatic stress syndrome. She began to drink heavily, and became uncertain about her future. In 1946, she traveled with Roland to the United States where she visited Man Ray in California. After she discovered she was pregnant with her only son, Antony, she divorced Bey and, on May 3, 1947 married Roland. Antony was born in September 1947. In 1949, they bought Farley Farm House in Sussex. During the 1950s and 1960s, Farley Farm became a sort of artistic Mecca for visiting artists such as Picasso, Man Ray, Henry Moore, Eileen Agar, Jean Dubuffet, Dorothea Tanning, and Max Ernst. While Miller continued to do the occasional photo shoot for Vogue, she soon discarded the darkroom for the kitchen becoming a successful gourmet cook. She also photographed for biographies Roland wrote about Picasso and Antoni Tapies. However, images from the war, especially the concentration camps, continued to haunt her and she started on what Antony describes as a "downward spiral". Her depression may have been accelerated by her husband's long affair with the trapeze artist Diane Deriaz. Lee rarely talked about her war experiences but it inevitably had harsh effects on her health and her relationship with her family.
Miller died from cancer at Farley Farm House in Chiddingly, Sussex in 1977, aged 70. She was cremated, and her ashes spread through her herb garden at Farley Farm House.

Legacy... Throughout her life, Miller did very little to promote her own photographic work. That Miller's work is known today is mainly due to the efforts of her son, Antony, who has been studying, conserving, and promoting his mother's work since the early 1980s. Her pictures are accessible at the Lee Miller Archive.
In 1985, the first biography of Miller entitled "The Lives of Lee Miller" was written by Antony Penrose. Since then, a number of books, mostly accompanying exhibitions of Miller's photographs, have been written by art historians and writers such as Jane Livingstone, Richard Calvocoressi, and Mark Haworth-Booth. In 2005 her life story was turned into a musical Six Pictures Of Lee Miller with music and lyrics by British composer Jason Carr. It premiered at The Chichester Festival Theatre (also in Sussex). Also in 2005 Carolyn Burke's substantial biography, Lee Miller, A Life, was published in the U.S. by Alfred A. Knopf and in the U.K. by Bloomsbury. In 2007, Traces of Lee Miller: Echoes from St Malo, an interactive CD and DVD about Miller's war photography in St Malo was released with the support of byHand Productions and Sussex University.

Eva Peron

2008-07-05T07:50:00.000-07:00

Eva Perón 1919 – 1952
María Eva Duarte nace el 7 de mayo de 1919 en la localidad de Los Toldos, Partido de Gral. Viamonte, Pcia. de Bs. As. Hija de Juan Duarte y de Juana Ibarguren – ambos hijos de inmigrantes vascos-franceses -, es la menor de 5 hermanos (Blanca, Elisa, Juan y Erminda) los cuales viven primero en Los Toldos para luego trasladarse a la localidad de Junín. Producida la muerte del padre en un accidente automovilístico en 1926, la madre realiza tareas de costura, corte y confección para sostener a la familia en base a un fuerte compromiso cristiano. La fuerte inclinación que tenía Eva por lo artístico se canaliza durante los 10 años (1935 – 1945) de actuación en el teatro, la radio y el cine con singular éxito.
En 1944, tras producirse un terremoto en la Pcia. de San Juan se realiza un festival artístico en el Luna Park para recaudar fondos para reconstruir la capital y asistir a las víctimas. Allí su encuentro con el Coronel Juan Perón signa la vida de ambos por el amor que se despierta entre ambos y la pasión compartida por lo social. Inmediatamente Eva colabora con la labor de la Secretaría de Trabajo y Previsión, a la vez que preside la Asociación Radial Argentina.
Los sucesos del 17 de octubre de 1945 la encontrarán pidiendo por la libertad de su hombre y tratando de convencer a los trabajadores de pedir por la libertad de quien impulsó todas las reformas sociales en dicha época. Tras la liberación de Juan Perón por el Pueblo, se casan el 22 de octubre por civil y el 10 de diciembre en la Iglesia de San Francisco de la Ciudad de la Plata, Pcia. de Bs. As, reafirmando el profundo amor que Evita sentía por la Orden de los Franciscanos (de hecho, Eva Perón será nombrada Hermana en Primer Orden de los Franciscanos ). Tras la asunción de Perón como Presidente el 4 de junio de 1946 Evita empieza a desarrollar una actividad inusual para las Primeras Damas de la época, ya que busca involucrarse en temas sociales y cívicos acorde con el ideario del nuevo gobierno en base a planteos afines a la Doctrina Social de la Iglesia.
En 1947 Eva perón viaja como embajadora de buena voluntad a distintos países europeos en representación de nuestro país. En algunos casos como España es la cara visible de la ayuda humanitaria brindada al pueblo español por parte de Argentina a la vez del quiebre del aislamiento internacional al que España era sometida. En Francia e Italia también asiste a las necesidades de esos pueblos, siendo destacado su encuentro con S.S. el Papa Pío XII, el cual le entrega un crucifijo de oro tras su entrevista. En Portugal se interesa por los problemas sindicales, completando su periplo por la Confederación Helvética. Tras su regreso a Argentina recala antes en Brasil, donde asiste a la Conferencia de Cancilleres por la Paz y Seguridad Continental, donde se entrevista con el Gral. Marshall, quien impulsaría el plan de recuperación económica de Europa por parte de los EE.UU, y en Uruguay.
A su regreso se le preguntó qué aprendió en Europa y Eva respondió sin vacilar: "lo que no tengo que hacer en la Argentina”, poniendo en evidencia que impulsaría la ayuda social con un sentido humanitario y cristiano y no como mera dádiva o limosna. Dicha idea fue tratada extensamente con quien era en ese entonces Nuncio Papal en París: Angelo Roncalli, después Juan XXIII, llamado "el Bueno". Esas conversaciones habrían terminado con una advertencia del futuro Papa a Evita: "Sabe, señora, dónde terminan quienes inician una tarea como la suya... en la cruz, señora, en la cruz". Su interés por la Justicia Social la impulsa en 1947 a crear la “Cruzada de Ayuda Social María Eva Duarte de Perón” que asiste en lo inmediato a los más necesitados, para luego perfeccionar esa ayuda en forma más integral a través de la Fundación de Ayuda Social María Eva Duarte de Perón” en 1948. La Fundación impulsa miles de obras por todo el país como ser Policlínicos, hospitales, escuelas (Plan 1.000 escuelas), Hogares- Escuelas, Hogares de Tránsito, Hogares de Ancianos, Colonias de Vacaciones, Hoteles para los obreros, Campeonatos Infantiles Evita, la creación de la Escuela de Enfermeras, la Ciudad Infantil, la Ciudad Estudiantil, etc.
Dichas obras fueron modelos de asistencial integral al desposeído, pues cubrían no solo sus necesidades materiales inmediatas, sino que se ocupaban de lo educacional y lo espiritual interactuando en algunas obras con ordenes religiosas ( por ej. en el Hogar de Tránsito N° 2 para mujeres, amén de trabajar asistentes sociales desarrollaban una tarea fundamental la Orden del Huerto en el economato y cuidado de los niños y mujeres de dicha obra). A su vez la Fundación Eva Perón contaba con el fundamental asesoramiento espiritual del Padre Hernán Benítez.
Es de destacar que Eva Perón impulsó el Decálogo de los Derechos de la Ancianidad en 1948, el cual fue incluido en la Constitución Nacional de 1949, a fin a un espíritu más social y de reivindicación de los más humildes. A su vez la Fundación asistió con víveres, medicamentos y elementos de trabajo a diversos países de todos los continentes (por ej. Italia, España, Israel, Colombia, Venezuela, Egipto, Líbano, Japón, EE. UU, etc). En cuanto a lo cívico en el año 1947 tenía como objetivo impulsar los derechos cívicos de la mujer argentina, los cuales se incluyen en la Ley 13.010 de Voto Femenino. Tras su sanción se organiza el cuerpo de Delegadas Censistas para empadronar a las mujeres argentinas e instruirlas en sus derechos cívicos. A su vez organiza en 1949 el Partido Peronista Femenino, del cual es Presidenta, a la vez que impulsa la creación de Unidades Básicas Femeninas, exclusivas para mujeres, las cuales cumplían funciones no solo políticas sino sociales, culturales y recreativas. Tras su labor en el primer gobierno de Perón es impulsada por la CGT y las mujeres del Partido peronista Femenino a ocupar la candidatura a Vicepresidente de la Nación, para lo cual se desarrollaría el acto de proclamación el 22 de agosto de 1951 en el Cabildo Abierto del Justicialismo. Ese día Eva recibe el apoyo de más de 2 millones de personas y a quienes, en un dramático diálogo, intenta convencer de su renuncia al mismo. Presionada por la situación de confrontación con la oposición y los militares, Evita decide renunciar anunciándolo por radio el 31 de agosto de ese año. Progresivamente se va deteriorando su salud por un cáncer terminal que la lleva a la muerte el 26 de julio de 1952.
Eva Perón 1952 – 1976
Tras su muerte se sucedieron homenajes populares por todo el país. A mismo tiempo sus restos fueron velados, durante 14 días, primero en la sede del Ministerio de Trabajo y Previsión – actual Consejo Deliberante de la Ciudad de Buenos Aires – , luego en el Honorable Congreso de la Nación y por último en la sede de la Confederación General del Trabajo. Dicho cuerpo vestía el hábito franciscano y llevaba el rosario obsequiado por S.S. Pío XII. El cuerpo de Eva Perón tuvo un proceso de embalsamamiento a cargo del Dr. Pedro Ara a fin de ser llevado, en un futuro, al “Monumento al Descamisado” –denominado con posterioridad “Monumento a Eva Perón” -, el cual no pudo ser concluido por producirse el golpe de estado que derrocó, en 1955, al gobierno constitucional del Presidente Juan Domingo Perón, el cual fue obligado a exiliarse en el exterior. La denominada “Revolución Libertadora” inició un proceso de persecución y proscripción del Peronismo – a través del Decreto 4161 – junto al encarcelamiento y torturas de sus principales dirigentes.
El cuerpo de Evita fue secuestrado por un grupo militar y trasladado, durante dos años, a distintos lugares de la Ciudad de Buenos Aires - sufriendo distintos tipos de vejaciones y mutilaciones por parte de dichos militares – hasta 1957. Ese año la Dictadura de la Revolución Libertadora ordena el traslado del cuerpo de Eva Perón – en un operativo secreto - a Italia, bajo el nombre falso de María Maggi de Magistris al Cementerio Maggiore de Milán donde estaría enterada hasta 1971. A partir de entonces fue incesante el pedido de restitución del cuerpo de Eva Perón por parte de la Familia Duarte, la cual sufrió persecuciones y debió exiliarse en Chile para luego, años después, retornar a la Argentina y continuar con sus reclamos ante la justicia y ante los gobiernos de turno. Los años de lucha de los grupos políticos y sindicales que integran Resistencia Peronista toman como bandera la devolución del cadáver de Eva Perón. A eso se suma la afluencia de los sectores juveniles y de las organizaciones armadas que plantean la reivindicación de su figura como paradigma revolucionario y de justificación de su accionar guerrillero. La dictadura militar - denominada Revolución Argentina – intenta negociar con el General Juan Perón para que no retorne a nuestro país por medio de la devolución del cadáver de Eva Perón.
El 1 de septiembre de 1971 sale del Cementerio Maggiore de Milán el cuerpo de Evita – llevado por un grupo militar – para devolver el cadáver al Gral. Perón en Madrid, España. Luego de comprobar las diversas mutilaciones del cuerpo, se dispone que éste permanezca en Puerta de Hierro- la residencia de Perón en España – para luego ser trasladado a la Argentina. Tras el fin de la proscripción del Peronismo y la asunción de Perón como Presidente se pensó transportar el cuerpo pero la situación de convulsión interna – unida al deterioro de la salud y posterior muerte de Perón – imposibilitaron que se realizara en vida del esposo de Evita.
Recién el 17 de noviembre de 1974 retornaron los restos de Eva Perón en un operativo llevado a cabo por el Ministro de Bienestar Social José López Rega y miembros del grupo paramilitar A.A.A, quienes tuvieron el cuerpo de Evita, junto con el de Perón, en una capilla ardiente en la residencia Presidencial de Olivos sin que la Familia Duarte tuviera acceso. Finalmente el Proceso de Reorganización Nacional dispone la restitución del cuerpo de Eva Perón a sus familiares para ser llevada a su bóveda, bajo estrictas normas de seguridad diseñadas por los mismos militares, en el Cementerio de la Recoleta el 22 de octubre de 1976, y donde hoy descansa en paz definitivamente.

Eva Perón 1919 - 1952 Maria Eva Duarte was born on May 7, 1919 in the town of Los Toldos, the Party of Gral. Viamonte, Pcia. Bs. As. Daughter of Juan Duarte and Juana Ibarguren - both children of immigrants Basque-French - is the smallest of 5 brothers (White, Elisa, John and Erminda) whom live in Los Toldos first and then moved to the village of Junin. Caused the death of the father in a car accident in 1926, the mother carries out tasks of sewing, cutting and sewing to support the family based on a strong Christian commitment. The strong inclination that Eva was so artistic channeled over the 10 years (1935 - 1945) action in the theater, radio and cinema with singular success. In 1944, after an earthquake in the Pcia. San Juan is an art festival at the Luna Park to raise funds to rebuild the capital and assist victims. There, her meeting with Colonel Juan Perón marks the lives of both by the love that wakes between two and a passion shared by the social. Eva immediately collaborates with the work of the Secretariat of Labor and, while chairing the Association Radial Argentina.
The events of October 17, 1945 can be found by asking for the freedom of their men and trying to convince the workers to ask for the freedom of all who promoted social reform in that era. Following the release of Juan Perón by the People, married on October 22 by the civil and Dec. 10 at the Church of San Francisco de la Ciudad de la Plata, Pcia. Bs. As, reaffirming the deep love she felt for Evita the Order of Franciscans (in fact, will be named Sister Eva Perón in First Order of Franciscans). Following the assumption of Peron as President on June 4, 1946 Evita begins to develop an unusual activity for the First Ladies of the era, as it seeks to engage in civic and social issues in line with the ideals of the new government based on a similar approach the Social Doctrine of the Church.
In 1947 Eva Perón traveling as a goodwill ambassador to several European countries representing our country. In some cases, like Spain is the visible face of the humanitarian aid provided by the Spanish people of Argentina at a time of the break from international isolation to which Spain was subjected. In France and Italy also attends to the needs of these people being highlighted his meeting with SS Pope Pius XII, which gives a gold crucifix after her interview. Portugal is interested in trade union problems, completing their journey through the Swiss Confederation. After his return to Argentina earlier stop in Brazil, where he is attending the Conference of Foreign Ministers for Peace and Security Continental, where she was meeting with the Gral. Marshall, who plan to spur economic recovery in Europe in the U.S., and Uruguay.
On her return she was asked what she learned in Europe and Eva replied without hesitation: " What I do not have to do in Argentina," showing that would boost social assistance with a humanitarian sense and a Christian and not as mere gift or charity. That idea was dealt extensively with whom he was then Papal Nuncio in Paris: Angelo Roncalli, later Pope John XXIII, called " The Well." Those talks would have ended with a warning of future pope to Evita: " You know, lady, who end up where they started a job like yours ... on the cross, Madam, on the cross." His interest in Social Justice in 1947, the drives to create the "Crusader of Social Welfare Maria Eva Duarte de Peron " which assists in the immediate to the most needy, and then refine that aid in more comprehensive manner through the Foundation for Help Social Maria Eva Duarte de Peron in 1948. The Foundation promotes thousands of works across the country such as polyclinics, hospitals, schools (1,000 schools plan), Households, schools, transit homes, nursing homes, children's holiday camps, hotels for workers, Children's Championships Evita, the creation the School of Nursing, City Kids, City Student, and so on.
what educational and spiritual interacting in some works with religious orders (eg. At Home Transit No. 2 for women, as well as social work developed a key task in the Order of the commissary orchard and care of children and Women of that work). In turn the Foundation Eva Perón had the fundamental spiritual counseling from Father Hernan Benitez. It is worth noting that Eva Perón pushed the Decalogue on the Rights of the Aging in 1948, which was included in the Constitution of 1949, in order to a spirit more social and vindication of the most humble. In turn the Foundation assisted with food, medicines and items of work in various countries from all continents (eg. Italy, Spain, Israel, Colombia, Venezuela, Egypt, Lebanon, Japan, EE. UU, etc). As for what civic in 1947 was aimed at furthering the civil rights of Argentine women, which are included in the Women's Vote Act of 13,010. After her punishment is organized body of Delegates Censistas to register to Argentine women and educated them in their civic rights. In turn organized in 1949, the Peronist Women's Party, of which he is President, while driving the creation of Basic Units Female, exclusively for women, who met not only political functions but social, cultural and recreational activities. After his work in the first government of Peron was driven by the CGT and women's Party Peronist Women to take the nomination to Vice President's Office, which developed the act of proclamation on Aug. 22, 1951 at the Cabildo Abierto Justicialist. That day, Eva receives the support of more than 2 million people and who, in a dramatic dialogue, tries to convince his resignation to it. Pressured by the situation of confrontation with the opposition and the military, Evita decided to waive the radio announced by Aug. 31 of that year. Gradually his health is deteriorating by a terminal cancer that leads to the death on July 26, 1952. Eva Perón 1952 - 1976.
After his death was followed by tributes popular throughout the country. At the same time her remains were veiled, for 14 days, first at the headquarters of the Ministry of Labor and - current Deliberative Council of the City of Buenos Aires - and then in Congress and finally at the headquarters of the General Confederation of Labor. Such a body wearing the Franciscan habit and had rosary gifted by SS Pius XII. The body of Eva Perón had an embalming process carried out by Dr. Pedro Ara to be taken in future to the " Monument to Descamisado " post-called " Monument to Eva Perón " - which could not be completed occur by the coup that overthrew in 1955, the government President's constitutional Juan Domingo Peron, who was forced into exile abroad. The so-called " Revolution Liberator " began a process of persecution and proscription of Peronism - by Decree 4161 - next to the imprisonment and torture of its top leaders.
The body of Evita was abducted by a military group and moved, for two years at various locations in the city of Buenos Aires - suffer from various types of abuse and mutilation by those soldiers - until 1957. That year the Dictatorship of the Revolution Liberator ordered the removal of the body of Eva Perón - in a secret operation - to Italy, under the false name of Maria Maggi of Magistris Maggiore Cemetery to be aware of where Milan until 1971. Since then the order was relentless to return the body of Eva Perón by the Duarte family, which had suffered persecution and exile in Chile and then, years later, returning to Argentina and continue with their claims to justice and to governments in office.
The years of struggle by political groups and trade unions who took Peronist Resistance flag as the return of the corpse of Eva Perón. That sum is the influx of youth and sectors of the armed organizations that pose a claim to his image as a revolutionary paradigm and justification for their actions guerrilla. The military dictatorship - Argentina named Revolution - trying to negotiate with General Juan Perón not to return to our country by the return of the corpse of Eva Perón.
On Sept. 1, 1971 leaving the cemetery Maggiore in Milan the body of Evita - led by a military group - to return the body to Gral. Peron in Madrid, Spain. After checking the various mutilations of the body, that he stay at Puerta de Hierro, the residence of Peron in Spain - before being transferred to Argentina. After the end of the proscription of Peronism and the assumption of Peron as president was thought to transport the body but the situation of internal upheaval - coupled with the deteriorating health and subsequent death of Peron - impossible to conduct in life husband of Evita.
Just on November 17, 1974 returned the remains of Eva Perón in an operation carried out by the Minister for Social Welfare, Jose Lopez Rega and members of the paramilitary group AAA, who had the body of Evita, along with that of Peron, in a Chapel burning in the Olivos presidential residence without the Duarte family had access. Finally the Process of National Reorganization provides for the return of the body of Eva Perón to their relatives to be taken to its vault under stringent safety standards designed by the same military, in the Recoleta Cemetery on October 22, 1976, and where now rests in peace forever.

Golda Meir

2008-07-05T07:49:00.001-07:00

Golda Mabovich) Política israelí (Kiev, Ucrania, 1898 - Jerusalén, 1978). Era hija de un modesto carpintero judío de la parte occidental del Imperio ruso, que emigró a Estados Unidos en 1906, como muchos judíos ashkenazis que huían de la marginación y las persecuciones que sufrían en Europa oriental a principios de siglo. Establecida la familia en Milwaukee, Golda se hizo maestra y se casó en 1917 con Morris Myerson (más tarde hebraizó su apellido como Meir).
Se adhirió al movimiento sionista que buscaba el establecimiento de un Estado propio para los judíos, dentro de la mayoritaria corriente socialista. En coherencia con sus ideales, Golda y su marido se trasladaron a vivir y trabajar como colonos agrícolas en el kibbutz Mehavia en Palestina (1921), entonces bajo mandato colonial británico.
Pronto se trasladaron a Tel Aviv y Golda empezó a ocupar puestos de responsabilidad en el movimiento laborista judío de Palestina, el Histadrut: trabajó en su empresa constructora (esencial para los proyectos de colonización), dirigió su rama femenina y, por fin, en 1934 fue elegida secretaria general, convirtiéndose en una de las principales colaboradoras de Ben-Gurión al frente del partido Mapei.
Acabada la Segunda Guerra Mundial (1939-45), cuando se agudizó la presión sionista para exigir la independencia de los británicos, Meir ejerció incluso transitoriamente como presidenta de la Agencia Judía de Palestina (1946), que funcionaba como gobierno en la sombra de los colonos judíos (ya que los restantes dirigentes estaban detenidos por las autoridades coloniales). Desde aquel cargo colaboró eficazmente en el proceso que culminó con la creación del Estado de Israel en 1948 (fue una de las firmantes de la declaración de independencia).
Pasó seis meses como embajadora del nuevo Estado en la Unión Soviética, intentando que las autoridades comunistas suavizaran el trato a la comunidad judía y dejaran de poner trabas a la emigración hacia Israel. En 1949 Ben-Gurión le nombró ministra de Trabajo y Seguridad Social, cargo en el que demostró una gran eficacia en la construcción del Estado de Bienestar israelí y la integración laboral y social de las masas de inmigrantes que afluían al país. Luego pasó a ocupar la cartera de Asuntos Exteriores (1956-66), desde la cual desplegó una gran actividad para lograr el reconocimiento y el apoyo al Estado de Israel por los nuevos países independientes que estaban surgiendo de la descolonización africana.

Su avanzada edad y graves problemas de salud le hicieron anunciar por dos veces su retirada de la política activa (en 1965 y 1968); pero hubo de regresar a instancias de sus compañeros, para evitar que las rivalidades personales entre los líderes socialistas acabaran con la unidad del partido. En 1965 se enfrentó con Ben-Gurión, que abandonó el Mapei, quedando Meir como secretaria general.
Luego participó en la reunificación de las fuerzas socialistas en el Partido Laborista (fundado en 1968). Y en 1969 accedió al cargo de primera ministra tras la muerte de Eshkol, respaldada por una holgada mayoría en las elecciones de aquel mismo año. Desde ese puesto apoyó la política de su ministro Moshé Dayán y el ala derecha del partido, impulsando la colonización de los territorios árabes ocupados desde la guerra de 1967.
En 1973 hubo de hacer frente a un nuevo ataque combinado de los países árabes contra Israel, la Guerra del Yom Kippur; aunque Israel rechazó el ataque y respondió con una ofensiva victoriosa sobre sus enemigos, no pudo obtener frutos de su victoria, ya que los países árabes utilizaron su virtual monopolio sobre las exportaciones mundiales de petróleo para imponer una paz favorable mediante la presión diplomática occidental. Ello, unido a la imprevisión de los servicios secretos israelíes ante el ataque árabe, desacreditó a la primera ministra y provocó su caída en 1974, sustituyéndola Itzak Rabin al frente del Gobierno y del partido.

Golda Mabovich) Israeli Politics (Kiev, Ukraine, 1898 - Jerusalem, 1978). Was the daughter of a humble carpenter from the Jewish western part of the Russian Empire, who immigrated to the United States in 1906, as ashkenazis many Jews fleeing persecution and marginalization suffered in Eastern Europe early this century. Established the family in Milwaukee, Golda became a teacher and married in 1917 with Morris Myerson (later hebraizó his surname as Meir).
Joined the Zionist movement that sought the establishment of statehood for the Jews, within the current socialist majority. In line with its ideals, Golda and her husband moved to live and work as agricultural settlers in the Mehavia kibbutz in Palestine (1921), then under British colonial mandate. Soon they moved to Tel Aviv and Golda began to occupy positions of responsibility in Jewish Labor movement in Palestine, the Histadrut: she worked at his construction company (essential for the settlement projects), directed her female branch and, finally, in 1934 was elected secretary-general, becoming a major partner of Ben - Gurion at the helm of the party MAPEI.
After the Second World War (1939-45), became more acute when the Zionist pressure to demand independence from the British, even temporarily Meir served as president of the Jewish Agency for Palestine (1946), which functioned as a government in the shadow of Jewish settlers (as the other leaders were arrested by the colonial authorities). From that position worked effectively in the process that culminated in the creation of the State of Israel in 1948 (she was one of the signers of the declaration of independence). that the Communist authorities are trying to soften the treatment of the Jewish community and stop obstructing the emigration to Israel. In 1949, Ben-Gurion appointed him minister of Labor and Social Security, a position in which she showed a great efficiency in the construction of the Welfare State and the Israeli labor and social integration of the masses of immigrants who afluían the country. Then she took the portfolio of Foreign Affairs (1956-66), from which she deployed a great activity to achieve the recognition and support to the State of Israel by the newly independent countries that were emerging from decolonization of Africa.
Her advanced age and serious health problems made her twice announce its withdrawal from active politics (in 1965 and 1968), but had to return at the urging of her companions, so that personal rivalries among leaders ended up with the socialists unity of the party. In 1965 he clashed with Ben-Gurion, who left the MAPEI, leaving Meir as secretary general.
Then participated in the reunification of forces in the Socialist Labor Party (founded in 1968). And in 1969 acceded to the post of prime minister following the death of Eshkol, backed by a comfortable majority in the elections of that year. Since that post supported the policy of his minister Moshe Dayan and the right wing of the party, leading to the colonization of Arab lands occupied since the 1967 war.
In 1973 had to cope with a new combined attack of Arab countries against Israel, the Yom Kippur War, but Israel rejected the attack and responded with an offensive victorious over their enemies, was unable to obtain fruits of their victory, because the Arab countries used their virtual monopoly on world exports of oil to impose a favorable peace through Western diplomatic pressure. This, coupled with the lack of Israeli secret services before the Arab attack, discredited the prime minister and led to his downfall in 1974, replacing Itzak Rabin at the helm of the government and the party.

Indira Gandhi

2008-07-05T07:46:00.000-07:00

Primera ministro de la India. Nacida el 19 de noviembre de 1917 en Allahabad.
Fue la única hija de Jawaharlal Nehru, quien se convertiría más tarde en primer ministro de la India independiente. Luego de estudiar en la Universidad de Visva Bharati en Bengala y en la Universidad de Oxford en Inglaterra, en el año 1938 se afilió al Partido del Congreso involucrándose en el movimiento por la independencia de la India. En 1942 se casó con Feroze Gandhi, abogado parsi miembro del mismo partido. Ambos fueron arrestados por los ingleses acusados de subversión y pasaron trece meses en prisión... Cinco años después, en 1947, su padre Nehru se convirtió en Primer Ministro e Indira Gandhi se convirtió en asesora sobre problemas nacionales y le acompañó en algunos viajes al extranjero.
Indira Gandhi se unió al comité ejecutivo del Partido Congresista en el 1955 y fue electa presidente del partido en el 1959. En 1962, durante la guerra de fronteras chino-india, coordinó las actividades de defensa civil. Al fallecer su padre en mayo de 1964, fue nombrada ministra de Información y Radiodifusión en el gobierno de Lal Bahadur Shastri.
Al fallecer Shastri de forma inesperada dos años después, Gandhi se convierte en la cabeza del Partido Congresista y en Primera Ministro. Tras enfrentarse a un sinnúmero de retos por parte de la rama derechista del partido, encabezada por Morari Desai, Gandhi ganó la reelección en el 1967 por un margen mínimo de votos y se vio forzada a nombrar Primer Ministro Diputado a Desai. Durante los próximos cuatro años, consolidó su apoyo electoral y consiguió una victoria decisiva en el 1971, superando a una coalición conservadora monolítica. Más tarde en ese mismo año, Gandhi le prestó la fuerza militar de India a Bengala Oriental en su intento de liberarse de las atrocidades que el dominio de Pakistan ejercía sobre este territorio, y que resultó en la creación del estado independiente de Bangladesh.
En las elecciones nacionales de 1972, Gandhi y su partido vuelven a ganar. Pero poco después, su oponente socialista, la acusó de violar las leyes electorales y la corte superior de Allahabad sentenció en su contra en 1975, amenazando con prohibir su participación política por los próximos seis años. A modo de respuesta, Gandhi declara a la nación en estado de emergencia, encarcelando a varios de sus oponentes y promulgando una buena cantidad de leyes que realmente no tuvieron muy buena acogida entre la población, como la esterilización en gran escala, como medio para el control de la natalidad nacional. El Tribunal Supremo retiró los cargos que pesaban en su contra, pero el estado de emergencia continuó. En el 1977, al celebrarse las elecciones nacionales, Gandhi y el Partido Congresista fueron vencidos y ello la llevó a ser encarcelada por poco tiempo bajo cargos de corrupción oficial.
Durante los próximos tres años, Gandhi construyó su base de apoyo con una fracción del Partido Congresista que llamó Partido Congresista lo que le facilitó el recobrar su puesto en el Parlamento en 1978. Luego de la disolución del partido en poder, el Partido Janata, Indira y el Partido Congresista ganan las elecciones del 1980 por un margen bastante amplio. Gandhi se convierte de nuevo en Primera Ministro mientras que su hijo mayor, Sanjay, a quien ella quería como su sucesor, gana un escaño en el Lok Sabha. Ese mismo año, Sanjay Gandhi muere en un accidente de aviación. Indira entonces prepara a su hijo menor, Rajiv como futuro líder del partido. En 1983 es nombrada presidenta de los países no alineados.
En los años 80, se empezaron a suscitar nuevos problemas en India ya que varios estados comenzaron a reclamar autonomía respecto al gobierno central del país. En junio de 1984, en respuesta a las actuaciones de los extremistas Sikh en el Punjab, Gandhi ordena al ejército a atacar el Templo Dorado de Amritsar, el santuario sagrado de los Sikh, y mueren más de 450 personas. El 31 de octubre de 1984, Gandhi es asesinada por los disparos de dos de sus miembros de seguridad personal, también sikhs, en su jardín de Nueva Delhi, en represalia por la masacre de Amristar. Tras de su muerte, su hijo Rajiv fue nombrado Primer Ministro y líder del Partido del Congreso, desempeñando este cargo hasta que su partido perdió las elecciones nacionales en el 1989. Fue asesinado 18 meses después en el sur de la India.

Prime minister of India. Born on November 19, 1917 in Allahabad. It was the only child of Jawaharlal Nehru, who later became prime minister of independent India. After studying at Visva Bharati University in Bengal and the University of Oxford in England, in 1938 joined the Congress Party involved in the movement for independence from India. In 1942 she married Feroze Gandhi, lawyer Parsi member of the same party. Both were arrested by the British on charges of subversion and spent thirteen months in prison ... Five years later, in 1947, his father Nehru became Prime Minister Indira Gandhi and became adviser on national issues and accompanied him on some trips abroad.
Indira Gandhi joined the executive committee of the Congress Party in 1955 and was elected party chairman in 1959. In 1962, during the war of Sino-Indian border, coordinated the activities of civil defense. Upon the death of his father in May 1964, was appointed minister of Information and Broadcasting in the government of Lal Bahadur Shastri. Upon the death of Shastri unexpectedly two years later, Gandhi becomes head of the Congress Party and First Minister.
After facing a myriad of challenges from the right wing of the party branch, headed by Morari Desai, Gandhi won reelection in 1967 by a minimum margin of votes and was forced to appoint a deputy prime minister Desai. During the next four years, consolidated its electoral support and won a decisive victory in 1971, beating out a monolithic conservative coalition. Later that same year, Gandhi gave him military force from India to East Bengal in their attempt to rid itself of the atrocities that the dominance exercised by Pakistan on this territory, and that resulted in the creation of the independent state of Bangladesh.
In national elections in 1972, Gandhi and her party back to win. But soon after, her Socialist opponent, accused her of violating election laws and the court sentenced top of Allahabad against him in 1975, threatening to ban their participation in politics for the next six years. In response, Gandhi declared a nationwide state of emergency, jailing several of his opponents and enacting a fair amount of laws that really were not very well received among the population, as large-scale sterilization as a means for birth control nationally. The Supreme Court dropped the charges weighing against her, but the state of emergency continued. In the 1977 national elections to take place, Gandhi and the Congress Party were defeated and it took her to be jailed briefly on charges of official corruption.
During the next three years, Gandhi built her base of support with a fraction of the Congress Party who called Congress Party which provided her regain her seat in the Parliament in 1978. Following the dissolution of the party in power, the Janata Party, Indira and the Congress Party won the elections of 1980 by a fairly wide margin. Gandhi became Prime Minister again while her eldest son, Sanjay, whom she wanted as her successor, won a seat in the Lok Sabha. That same year, Sanjay Gandhi died in a plane crash. Indira then prepares her younger son, Rajiv as a future party leader. In 1983 she was named president of the non-aligned countries.
In the 80s, began to raise new problems in India since several states began to demand autonomy to the central government of the country. In June 1984, in response to actions by Sikh extremists in Punjab, Gandhi ordered the army to attack the Golden Temple in Amritsar, the holiest of Sikh shrine, and killed over 450 people. On October 31st 1984, Gandhi was killed by gunfire from two members of security personnel, including Sikhs, in her garden in New Delhi in retaliation for the slaughter of Amristar. After her death, her son Rajiv was appointed Prime Minister and leader of the Congress Party, playing that position until his party lost national elections in 1989. He was killed 18 months later in southern India.

Rosalind Franklin

2008-07-05T07:42:00.001-07:00

Rosalind nació en Inglaterra el 25 de julio de 1920.
Rosalind Franklin se graduó de la universidad de Cambridge en 1941, no sin antes salvar la oposición paterna.
Hizo estudios fundamentales de microestructuras del carbón y del grafito y este trabajo fue la base de su doctorado en química física, que obtuvo en la universidad de Cambridge en 1945. Después de Cambridge, pasó tres años productivos (1947-1950) en París en el Laboratoire de Services Chimiques de L'Etat, donde estudió las técnicas de la difracción de la radiografía. En 1951, volvió a Inglaterra como investigador asociado en el laboratorio de John Randall en King's College, Cambridge.
Para Rosalind era la oportunidad de aplicar sus conocimientos a la biología. En el laboratorio de Randall se cruzó su trabajo con el de Maurice Wilkins, ambos referidos al DNA. Lamentablemente, la misoginia y la competencia llevó la relación a un conflicto permanente con Wilkins. Éste llevaba largo tiempo trabajando en el DNA y había tomado la primera fotografía relativamente clara de su difracción cristalográfica. Wilkins había sido el primero en reconocer en ésta los ácidos nucleicos y no estaba dispuesto a la competencia interna.
Rosalind Franklin obtuvo una fotografía de difracción de rayos X que reveló, de manera inconfundible, la estructura helicoidal de la molécula del DNA. Esa imagen, conocida hoy como la famosa fotografía 51, fue un respaldo experimental crucial para que el investigador estadounidense James Watson y el británico Francis Crick establecieran, en 1953, la célebre hipótesis de la "doble hélice" que es característica de la estructura molecular del DNA, por la que en 1962, junto con Maurice Wilkins, se les concediera el Premio Nóbel en Fisiología y Medicina.
Watson había tenido ocasión de asistir a la clase que dio Franklin en noviembre de 1951 sobre el avance de sus investigaciones. Rápidamente, con Francis Crick se pusieron a la tarea de imaginar su estructura y para ello, trabajaron principalmente con modelos atómicos a escala. Este primer intento terminaría en un fracaso rotundo. Watson y Crick invitaron a Franklin y Wilkins a Cambridge para darles a conocer su propuesta. Rosalind Franklin pulverizó sus argumentos.
A principios de 1953 Wilkins mostró a Watson uno de las fotografías cristalográficas de Rosalind de la molécula de DNA, cuando Watson vio la foto, la solución llegó a ser evidente para él y los resultados fueron publicados en un artículo en Nature casi inmediatamente. Sin autorización de Rosalind, Wilkins se las mostró primero a James Watson y, posteriormente, un informe de Rosalind Franklin a Sir John Randall fue entregado a Watson y Crick.
Considerado como el logro médico más importante del siglo XX, el modelo de la doble hélice del ADN abrió el camino para la comprensión de la biología molecular y las funciones genéticas; antecedentes que han permitido llegar al establecimiento, en estos días, de la secuencia "completa" del genoma humano.
Rosalind Rosalind murió en Londres el 16 de abril de 1958.

Rosalind was born in England on July 25, 1920. Rosalind Franklin graduated from the University of Cambridge in 1941, but not before saving the parental opposition. She Microstructures fundamental studies of the coal and graphite, and this work was the basis of her Ph.D. in physical chemistry, which won at the University of Cambridge in 1945. After Cambridge, spent three productive years (1947-1950) in Paris at the Laboratoire de Services Chimiques de L'Etat, where he studied the techniques of the X-ray diffraction. In 1951, he returned to England as a research associate in the laboratory of John Randall at King's College, Cambridge.
For Rosalind was an opportunity to apply their knowledge to biology. In the laboratory of Randall came across her work with that of Maurice Wilkins, both referring to DNA. Unfortunately, misogyny and competition led to a conflict relationship with Wilkins. It took a long time working on the DNA and had taken the first picture of its relatively clear crystallographic diffraction. Wilkins was the first to recognize it in nucleic acids and was not willing to internal competition.
That image, known today as the famous photograph 51, was a crucial experimental support for the investigator James Watson and Francis Crick British establishment in 1953, the hypothesis of the famous " double helix " which is characteristic of the molecular structure of the DNA, for which in 1962, along with Maurice Wilkins, were awarded the Nobel Prize in Physiology and Medicine.
Watson had occasion to attend a class given by Franklin in November 1951 on the progress of their investigations. Quickly, with Francis Crick will be put to the task of imagining their structure and for this, worked primarily with atomic-scale models. This first attempt would end in a resounding failure. Watson and Crick invited Wilkins and Franklin to Cambridge to let them know about her proposal. Rosalind Franklin pulverized their arguments.
In early 1953, Wilkins showed Watson one of the crystallographic pictures of Rosalind in the molecule of DNA, Watson when she saw the photo, the solution became clear to her and the results were published in an article in Nature almost immediately. Rosalind without authorization, Wilkins was the first to show James Watson and, later, a report from Rosalind Franklin to Sir John Randall was handed over to Watson and Crick.
Considered as the most important medical achievement of the twentieth century, the model of the double helix of DNA paved the way for the understanding of molecular biology and genetic functions; background that have led to the establishment in these days of the sequence " complete " human genome. Rosalind Rosalind died in London on April 16, 1958.

Marianne Brandt

2008-07-05T07:41:00.001-07:00

Marianne Brandt nació en Chemnitz, Alemania y estudió escultura en la Escuela de Bellas Artes del Ducado de Weimar. Después de haber pasado un tiempo en Noruega y en Paris, retornó a Weimar en 1924 para enrolarse en la Bauhaus, e ingresar en el taller de metales. Cuando Lazló Moholy - Nagy, asistido por el orfebre Christian Dell, se hizo cargo como Form Master del taller de metales, luego de dimitir Johannes Itten, en 1923, Brandt era una de las aprendices de mayor talento en el taller obsesionada por la función, geometría y las formas elementales.Esto puede verse en su temprano diseño de tetera esférica. En esta ella interpretó la reacción hacia el ornamento kitsch, que había madurado antes de la guerra.Desde el "laboratorio para la producción en masa" que era la Bauhaus, Marianne produjo numerosos diseños para objetos de uso diario. Especialmente son famosos sus diseños de lámparas de todo tipo.En 1929, dejó la Bauhaus para irse a trabajar en el estudio de Walter Gropius en Berlín como diseñadora. En 1932 regresó a su ciudad natal para trabajar de forma independiente, retornando también a la pintura. Entre 1949-1951 enseñó en la Escuela de Artes Aplicadas y Libres de Dresden, y luego en el Institut für Angewandte Kunst en Berlin (1951-1954), además de seguir realizando algunos diseños para la industria. En sus últimos años ella se volcó a la pintura y la escultura.

Marianne Brandt was born in Chemnitz, Germany and studied sculpture at the School of Fine Arts from the Duchy of Weimar. Having spent time in Norway and in Paris, he returned to Weimar in 1924 to join the Bauhaus, and move into the metal workshop. When Lazlo Moholy - Nagy, assisted by the goldsmith Christian Dell, took over as Master of the Form metal workshop, after resigning Johannes Itten, in 1923, Brandt was one of the most talented apprentice in the workshop obsessed with the role, geometry and elementary forms. This can be seen in its early design of spherical teapot. In this she interpreted the reaction to the kitsch ornament, which had matured before the guerra. Desde the " laboratory for mass production " which was the Bauhaus, Marianne produced numerous designs for articles of daily use. Are especially famous for his designs lamps around tipo. En 1929, she left the Bauhaus to go to work in the studio of Walter Gropius in Berlin as a designer. In 1932 she returned to her hometown to work independently, also returned to painting. Between 1949-1951 she taught at the School of Applied Arts and Free Dresden, and then at the Institut für Angewandte Kunst in Berlin (1951-1954), plus some further designs for the industry. In his later years she turned to painting and sculpture.

Katherine Hepburn

2008-07-05T07:40:00.001-07:00

Katharine Houghton Hepburn (May 12, 1907 – June 29, 2003) was an American actress of film, television and stage.
Acclaimed throughout her 73-year career, Hepburn holds the record for the most Best Actress Oscar wins with four, from 12 nominations. Hepburn won an Emmy Award in 1976 for her lead role in Love Among the Ruins, and was nominated for four other Emmys and two Tony Awards. In 1999, the American Film Institute ranked Hepburn as the greatest female star in the history of American cinema.
Hepburn was born in Hartford, Connecticut, the daughter of suffragist Katharine Martha Houghton (1878 – 1951) (an heiress to the Corning Glass fortune and cofounder of Planned Parenthood) and Dr. Thomas Norval Hepburn (1879 – 1962), who was a successful urologist from Virginia with Maryland roots. She is of English ancestry from both sides of her family. Her siblings are Thomas Houghton Hepburn (1905 – 1921), Richard Houghton Hepburn (born 1911), Robert Houghton Hepburn (1913 – 2007), Marion Houghton Hepburn Grant (1918 – 1986), and Margaret Houghton Hepburn Perry (1920 – 2006).
Hepburn's father insisted the girls do swimming, riding, golf and tennis. Hepburn, eager to please her father, won a bronze medal for figure skating from the Madison Square Garden skating club, shot golf in the low eighties and reached the semifinal of the Connecticut Young Women's Golf Championship. Hepburn especially enjoyed swimming, and regularly took dips in the frigid waters that fronted her bayfront Connecticut home, generally believing that "the bitterer the medicine, the better it was for you." She continued her brisk swims well into her 80s. Hepburn would come to be recognized for her athletic physicality—she fearlessly performed her own pratfalls in films such as Bringing Up Baby (1938), which is now held up as an exemplar of screwball comedy.
On April 3, 1921, while visiting friends in Greenwich Village, Hepburn found her older brother Tom (born November 8, 1905), whom she idolized, hanging from the rafters of the attic by a rope, dead of an apparent suicide. Her family denied it was self-inflicted, arguing he had been a happy boy. They insisted it must have been an experimentation gone awry. It has been speculated he was trying to carry out a trick he saw in a play with Katharine. Hepburn was devastated and sank into a depression. She shied away from other children and was mostly home-schooled. For many years she used Tom's birthday (November 8) as her own. It was not until she wrote her autobiography, Me: Stories of my Life, that Hepburn revealed her true birth date.
Hepburn was educated at the Kingswood-Oxford Day School in West Hartford, Connecticut, before going on to Bryn Mawr College. While at Bryn Mawr, Hepburn was suspended for breaking curfew and smoking, which at that time was particularly not encouraged for women. Decades later, Hepburn also confirmed that after dark, she would go swimming naked in the college's "Cloisters" fountain. She received a degree in history and philosophy in 1928 , the same year she had her debut on Broadway after landing a bit part in Night Hostess.
A banner year for Hepburn, 1928 also marked her marriage to socialite businessman Ludlow ("Luddy") Ogden Smith, whom she met while attending Bryn Mawr and married after a short engagement. Hepburn and Smith's marriage was rocky from the start—she insisted he change his name to S. Ogden Ludlow so she would not be confused with well-known rotund singer Kate Smith. They were divorced in Mexico in 1934. Fearing that the Mexican divorce was not legal, Ludlow got a second divorce in the United States in 1942 and a few days later he remarried. Katharine Hepburn often expressed her gratitude toward Ludlow for his financial and moral support in the early days of her career. "Luddy" continued to be a lifelong friend to her and the Hepburn family.
On September 21, 1938, Hepburn was staying in her Old Saybrook, Connecticut beach home when the 1938 New England Hurricane struck and destroyed her house. Hepburn narrowly escaped death before the home was washed away over the cliffs. She stated in her 1991 book entitled 'Me' that she lost 95% of her belongings in the storm, including her 1932 best actress Oscar, which was later found intact.
Stage... Hepburn developed her acting skills in plays at Bryn Mawr and later in revues staged by stock companies. During her last years at Bryn Mawr, Hepburn met a young producer with a stock company in Baltimore, Maryland, who cast her in several small roles, including a production of The Czarina and The Cradle Snatchers.
Hepburn's first leading role was in a production of The Big Pond, which opened in Great Neck, New York. The producer had fired the play's original leading lady at the last minute, and asked Hepburn to assume the role. Terror stricken at the unexpected change, Hepburn arrived late and, once on stage, flubbed her lines, tripped over her feet and spoke so rapidly she was almost incomprehensible. She was fired, but continued to work in small stock company roles and as an understudy.
Later, Hepburn was cast in a speaking part in the Broadway play Art and Mrs. Bottle. Hepburn was fired from this role as well, though she was eventually rehired when the director could not find anyone to replace her. After another summer of stock companies, in 1932, Hepburn landed the role of Antiope the Amazon princess in The Warrior's Husband, which required her to wear a very short costume and debuted to excellent reviews. Hepburn became the talk of New York City, and began getting noticed by Hollywood.
In the play, Hepburn entered the stage by jumping over a flight of steps while carrying a large stag on her shoulders—an RKO scout ( Leland Hayward, whom she would later romance ) was so impressed by this display of physicality that he asked her to do a screen test for the studio's next vehicle, A Bill of Divorcement, which starred John Barrymore and Billie Burke.
In true Hepburn fashion, she demanded an outlandish $1,500 per week for film work (at the time she was earning between $80 and $100 per week). After seeing her screen test, RKO agreed to her demands and cast her. At 5 feet, 7 inches (1.71 m), Hepburn was one of the tallest leading ladies of her time. Her film career was launched alongside legendary actor John Barrymore and director George Cukor, who would become a lifetime friend and colleague. Barrymore pinched Kate's behind on the set in one of his many attempts to seduce her. She said, " If you do that again I'm going to stop acting." Barrymore replied, "I wasn't aware that you'd started, my dear."
Film... After the audience reaction to A Bill of Divorcement, RKO signed Hepburn to a new contract. But her nonconformist, anti - Hollywood behaviour offscreen made studio executives fret she would never become a superstar. The following year (1933), Hepburn won her first Oscar for best actress in Morning Glory, playing a young actress who rejects romance in favor of her career. That same year, Hepburn played Jo in the screen adaptation of Little Women, which broke box-office records.
Intoxicated by her success, Hepburn felt it was time to return to the theater. She chose The Lake, but was unable to obtain a release from RKO and instead went back to Hollywood to film the forgettable Spitfire. Having satisfied RKO, Hepburn went immediately back to Manhattan to begin the play, in which she played an English girl unhappy with her overbearing mother and wimpy father. The play was generally considered a flop, and Hepburn's performance elicited Dorothy Parker's famous quip that the actress "ran the gamut of emotions from A to B."
In 1935, in the title role of the film Alice Adams, Hepburn earned her second Oscar nomination. By 1938, Hepburn was a bona fide star, and her forays into comedy with the films Bringing Up Baby and Stage Door were well-received critically. But audience response to the two films was tepid, and the good reviews from the critics were not enough to rescue her from an earlier string of flops (The Little Minister, Spitfire, Break of Hearts, Sylvia Scarlett, A Woman Rebels, Mary of Scotland, Quality Street). As a result, Hepburn's movie career began to decline.
Katharine Hepburn would often come to interviews dressed in men's suits, saying that it was comfortable. Without meaning to, she made a fashion statement, and women who admired her started wearing trousers, which wasn't encouraged at the time.
On June 29, 2003, Hepburn died of natural causes at Fenwick, the Hepburn family home in Old Saybrook, Connecticut. She was 96 years old, and was buried in Cedar Hill Cemetery, Hartford, Connecticut. In honor of her extensive theater work, the lights of Broadway were dimmed for an hour.
The book Kate Remembered, by award winning biographer A. Scott Berg, was published just 13 days after Hepburn's death. It documents the friendship between the actress and Berg. He makes one passing reference to her possible bisexuality, referencing a comment made by Irene Mayer Selznick. Later writers treat this reputed bisexuality in more detail. linking her with some of that period's biggest female celebrities, including Claudette Colbert, Greta Garbo, Judy Holliday and Judy Garland.
Constance Collier was a drama coach for many famous actors, including Hepburn (whom she met when they were both acting in Stage Door) during her world tour performing Shakespeare in the 50s. Upon Collier's death in 1955, Hepburn "inherited" Collier's secretary Phyllis Wilbourn, who remained with Hepburn as her secretary for 40 years.
In 2004, in accordance with Hepburn's wishes, her personal effects were put up for auction with Sotheby's in New York. Hepburn had meticulously collected an extraordinary amount of material relating to her career and place in Hollywood over the years, as well as personal items such as a bust of Spencer Tracy she sculpted herself (used as a prop in Guess Who's Coming to Dinner on the desk where Sidney Poitier makes his phone call) and her own oil paintings. The auction netted several million dollars, which Hepburn willed mostly to her family and close friends, including television journalist Cynthia McFadden.
Family... Hepburn's genealogy has been researched through the Whittier line back to King Louis IX of France. She is listed as one of the descendants of the Mayflower compact author William Brewster (her family tree). Her paternal grandfather, Sewell Hepburn, was an Episcopal clergyman, but on the subject of religion, she told another member of the journalism community she loved so much to shock (this time a Ladies Home Journal reporter) in October 1991, "I'm an atheist and that's it. I believe there's nothing we can know except that we should be kind to each other and do what we can for other people."

Sor Juana Ines de la Cruz

2008-07-05T07:39:00.001-07:00

Su verdadero nombre es Juana de Asbaje y Ramírez, y nació en Nueva España (Méjico), probablemente de madre mejicana y padre español. Se piensa que fue ilegítima. Asombró esta mujer aun de niña por su precocidad, su afán de saber y su autodidactismo. A los 14 años ya estaba escribiendo poesía. La esposa del virrey de la Nueva España, la marquesa de Mancera, impresionada por la joven, la invitó a vivir en palacio como dama de corte. Fue aquí, en la corte del virrey de la Nueva España, donde aprendió latín. A los 16 años ingresó de novicia en la Orden carmelita, pero la severidad de la regla la hizo regresar al palacio de los virreyes. Un año más tarde entró en la Orden jerónima, donde tenía más libertad de movimiento. Gozó de extraordinaria consideración y la visitaban y consultaban hasta los personajes más importantes. Se dice que entró en el convento por temor de los hombres y para entregarse a sus estudios. Al cumplir los 40 años Sor Juana dejó de escribir, abandonó los estudios que tanto la apasionaban, y se entregó de lleno a la oración y a la caridad. Vendió su biblioteca de 4.000 volúmenes y sus instrumentos científicos y musicales para ayudar a los pobres. Se declaró una peste en su ciudad y, cuidando a sus hermanas de religión, contrajo el mal, del que murió en 1694, a los 43 años de edad. Escribió Sor Juana dos comedias al estilo de Calderón (Amor es más laberinto y Los empeños de una casa) y autos sacramentales como El divino Narciso. Pero su producción de mayor interés pertenece a la lírica. Su obra de más empeño, de casi un millar de versos, es su Primero sueño, a la manera de las Soledades de Góngora. Es obra de enrevesado y a veces oscuro pensamiento. Describe la noche y el sueño durante el cual el espíritu se purifica y eleva hasta la contemplación del universo y trata de penetrar sus leyes, pero llega al alba sin conseguirlo en este «primer» sueño, cuya solución quedaba probablemente confiada a otro «segundo sueño» que no fue escrito. Este Primero sueño se considera el mejor poema filosófico de todo el Siglo de Oro español. La voz más personal suya, sin embargo, se encuentra en su poesía de juventud, en su poesía amorosa y religiosa: la primera de sincera ternura y delicadeza femenina, y la segunda de sutil misticismo y sensualidad a la manera de San Juan de la Cruz. Destacó en la canción y el soneto. Escribió deliciosos villancicos, para los cuales supuestamente también escribió la música.

Her real name is Jeanne Asbaje and Ramirez, and was born in New Spain (Mexico), probably of Mexican mother and Spanish father. It is thought that it was illegitimate. Amazed this woman even as a child by his precocity, her eagerness for knowledge and self-taught. At 14 years and was writing poetry. The wife of the viceroy of New Spain, the marquise of Mancera, impressed by the young, invited her to live in the palace as a lady of court. It was here in the court of the viceroy of New Spain, where she learned Latin. At age 16 she entered the Carmelite Order in the novice, but the severity of the rule made it back to the palace of the viceroys. A year later she entered the Order Jerome, where she had more freedom of movement. Enjoyed special consideration and visits and consultations until the most important. It is said that she entered the convent for fear of the men and delivered to their studies. When they are 40 years Sor Juana stopped writing, she left the studies that both the passionate and full of himself to prayer and charity. She sold her library of 4,000 volumes and its scientific instruments and music to help the poor. It was declared a plague on their city, caring for their sisters in religion, she contracted the disease, which died in 1694, to 43 years of age. Sor Juana wrote two comedies in the style of Calderon (Love is more of endeavors The maze and a house) and sacramental orders as the divine Narciso. But its production of higher interest belongs to the lyrical. Her work harder, nearly a thousand verses, is her first dream, in the manner of the solitudes of Gongora. It is the work of convoluted and sometimes dark thoughts. She describes the night and sleep during which the spirit is purified and rises to the contemplation of the universe and attempts to penetrate its laws, but arrives at dawn without success in this ( first ) dream, whose solution was probably entrusted to another ( second dream ) That was not written. First, this dream is considered the best philosophical poem around the Spanish Golden Age. Her voice most personal, however, is in her poetry of youth, in her religious poetry and love: the first honest tenderness and feminine delicacy, and the second of subtle sensuality and mysticism in the manner of San Juan de la Cruz. Highlighted in the song and sonnet. Wrote delightful carols, for which allegedly also wrote the music.

Sylvia Pankhurst

2008-07-05T07:35:00.000-07:00

A principios del siglo pasado las mujeres aún estaban excluidas de toda participación en la vida pública y no tenían derecho al voto en casi ningún país del mundo. Sylvia Pankhurst dedicó más de una década de su vida a combatir esta injusticia. Sin embargo, su compromiso con la lucha por acabar con las desigualdades no terminó aquí y en el curso de su vida fue tomando posiciones cada vez más radicales, que la llevaron a militar en una organización socialista.
Sylvia nació en Manchester, en el seno de una familia politizada. Tras la muerte de su padre, un conocido líder del Partido Laborista, su viuda Emmeline empezó la campaña por los votos de la mujer, formando en 1903 la Unión Política y Social de Mujeres (WSPU), afín a este partido. Sylvia, que por entonces era una estudiante de arte, lo abandonó todo para volcarse completamente en la causa junto a su madre y a su hermana Christabel. Esta organización fue conocida como “las suffragettes”, diferenciándose del movimiento de mujeres que había empezado a reivindicar el sufragio femenino a mediados del siglo anterior, “las sufragistas”, de tendencia más moderada. Cansadas de no ser tomadas en cuenta, estas mujeres decidieron cambiar de táctica y recurrir a la acción directa para hacerse oír, interrumpiendo los discursos de los ministros o prendiendo fuego a edificios públicos.
En 1906, con la elección de los liberales, las Pankhursts se trasladaron a Londres para enfrentarse al gobierno. Junto a otras mujeres, organizaron manifestaciones y se encadenaron a las verjas del Parlamento. Sylvia fue arrestada en octubre de este mismo año, siendo éste el primero de muchos períodos que ella y otras muchas activistas pasarían en prisión. La represión contra este movimiento fue endureciéndose a medida que el mismo iba tomando fuerza. La policía las expulsaba de los actos y les imponía multas que se negaban a pagar, tras lo cual eran arrestadas. Ante los abusos que las fuerzas del orden cometían contra ellas y para hacer oír su demanda de ser consideradas como presas políticas, recurrieron a huelgas de hambre, que a menudo fueron contestadas con la tortura de la alimentación forzada. Ninguna de estas medidas represivas consiguió silenciar las voces de estas valientes mujeres.
Sin embargo, la necesidad de definir por qué estaban luchando se convirtió en una fuente de discordia entre sus filas, que acabó provocando una ruptura dentro del movimiento. Las líderes del WSPU querían el voto para las mujeres en las mismas condiciones que los hombres. Teniendo en cuenta que por aquel entonces sólo votaban un 42% de los hombres, esta demanda excluía no sólo a muchas mujeres, sino también a muchos hombres de clase trabajadora. Muchas activistas que hasta ese momento se habían dejado la piel luchando porque las mujeres pudiesen votar, tomaron conciencia de la necesidad de ir más allá y empezaron a demandar el sufragio para la clase trabajadora en su conjunto.
En el periodo previo a la Primera Guerra Mundial, con la creciente polarización de la sociedad inglesa, se desató un movimiento huelguístico conocido como el Great Unrest. Emmeline y Christabel Pankhurst se opusieron frontalmente a este movimiento. Argumentaban que los hombres que participaban del mismo tenían el voto y podían utilizarlo, ignorando que muchas mujeres también se estaban sumando a las huelgas. Sylvia, defensora de las ideas socialistas, no dudó en posicionarse a favor de las trabajadoras, entendiendo que la lucha por el voto femenino tenía que ir necesariamente acompañada de la lucha por el voto para toda la clase trabajadora. La liberación de la mujer pasaba a sus ojos por un cambio social y económico mucho más profundo.En 1913 rompió definitivamente con su madre y su hermana y fundó la Federación del Este de Londres de Sufragistas, en la que se organizaron tanto mujeres como hombres. Más tarde, apoyó la Revolución rusa de 1917 y mantuvo largos debates con Lenin sobre la posibilidad de fundar un Partido Comunista en Inglaterra. Un año después, el gobierno inglés, por miedo a que se acrecentasen las tensiones sociales en plena guerra, concedió el derecho al voto a las mujeres propietarias, extendiéndose diez años más tarde a toda la sociedad.
Tras toda una vida de militancia política, Sylvia se trasladó a Etiopía, desde donde continuó en pie de guerra contra la ocupación del Gobierno italiano de Mussolini en la región. Allí pasó sus últimos días. La lucha por los derechos democráticos de las mujeres supuso una victoria para su dignidad y su igualdad. Hoy, cien años después, las injusticias fundamentales a las que esta luchadora incansable se enfrentó continúan existiendo, al igual que ella miles de mujeres siguen enfrentándose y rompiendo barreras contra la opresión.

At the beginning of last century women were still excluded from any participation in public life and had no right to vote in almost any country in the world. Sylvia Pankhurst spent more than a decade of her life to fight this injustice. However, his commitment to the fight to end inequality did not end here and in the course of her life was taking increasingly radical positions, which led to the military in a socialist organization.
Sylvia was born in Manchester, in a family politicized. After the death of her father, a known leader of the Labor Party, his widow Emmeline began the campaign for the votes of women, in 1903 formed the Union of Women and Social Policy (WSPU), akin to that party. Sylvia, who by then was an art student, left everything to tip over completely to the case along with his mother and her sister Christabel. This organization was known as " Suffragette " unlike the women's movement that had begun to assert women's suffrage by the middle of last century, " the suffragette," the more moderate trend. Tired of not being taken into account, these women decided to change tactics and resort to direct action to be heard, interrupting the speeches of ministers or fire to public buildings. In 1906, with the election of the Liberals, was the Pankhursts moved to London to deal with the government. Along with other women, organized demonstrations and chained themselves to the gates of Parliament. Sylvia was arrested in October this year, and this is the first of many times that she and many other activists spend in prison.
The repression of this movement was hardened as it was taking force. The police removed the acts of imposing fines and who refused to pay, after which they were arrested. Faced with the abuses committed by law enforcement against them and to hear her claim to be regarded as political prisoners, resorted to hunger strikes, which often were answered with the torture of force-feeding. None of these repressive measures succeeded in silencing the voices of these brave women.
However, the need to define why they were fighting became a source of discord among their ranks, which eventually causing a rupture within the movement. The leaders of the WSPU wanted the vote to women on the same terms as men. Bearing in mind that by the time they voted only 42% of men, this demand not only excluded many women, but also many working-class men. Many activists who until then had been battling skin left because women could vote, aware of the need to go further and began to demand suffrage for the working class as a whole.
In the run up to World War I, with the increasing polarization of English society, began a strike movement known as the Great Unrest. Emmeline and Christabel Pankhurst objected strongly to this movement. They argued that the men involved had the same voting and could use it, ignoring that many women were also adding to strikes. Sylvia, an advocate of socialist ideas, did not hesitate to stand for women workers, understanding that the struggle for women to vote had to be necessarily accompanied by the struggle for voting for the entire working class. The release of women passing in their eyes for a social and economic change much more profound.
In 1913 definitively broke with her mother and sister and founded the Federation of East London to bear, which organized both women and men. Later, she supported the Russian Revolution of 1917 and held lengthy discussions with Lenin on the possibility of founding a Communist Party in England. A year later, the British government, for fear that increased social tensions in the midst of war, granted the right to vote to women owners, a decade later spreading throughout society.
After a lifetime of political activism, Sylvia moved to Ethiopia, from where she continued on a war footing against the occupation of the Italian government of Mussolini in the region. There she spent her last days. The struggle for democratic rights of women was a victory for their dignity and equality. Today, a hundred years later, the fundamental injustices to which indefatigable fighter clashed this still exist, like her thousands of women continue to face and breaking barriers against oppression.

Francoise Gillot

2008-07-05T07:34:00.000-07:00

Early Years 1921.. Marie Françoise Gilot is born in the first hour after midnight on November 26 in Neuilly-sur-Seine, a suburb of Paris near Bois de Boulogne. She is the only child of Emile Gilot (1889-1957), an agronomist and chemical manufacturer, and Madeleine Renoult-Gilot (1998-1985).
Her paternal grandmother, Marie-Florence Vollant (1865-1943) was born in Metz, in the province of Lorraine, and raised in Paris. She was a descendent of the Collot and Leclerc families, the later owning a couturier house of fashion, which listed among its clients, Empress Eugenia, the wife of Emperor Napoleon III. Marie-Florence married Edmond Gilot (1856-1911). They owned a well-known Paris shop – a precursor to Fauchon – that specialized in imported and exotic foods. Marie-Florence and Edmond had five children, four girls and one boy, Emile, who was to become Françoise’s father. The family was affluent and Edmond had retired by age 40. Edmond Gilot went on to become an accomplished photographer, being among the first to print color photographs with the process, Lumiere.
Her maternal grandfather, Francois Renoult (1857-1933), was the son of an engineer involved in the construction of the Suez Canal, who later established a coal importing business in Courbevoie, following his marriage to Anne Baud (1869-1951), a lively and vivacious woman. They had four boys and a girl, Madeleine, who was to become Françoise’s mother.
Madeleine Renoult, a classical beauty, and a woman of taste, was not as interested in academic endeavors as she was in the applied arts, having studied art history, together with ceramics and watercolor painting, with Mlle. Meuge, a credentialed teacher in the Paris public school system. It was during these classes and other social functions that the Gilot and Renoult families came to know each other. Madeleine Renoult and Emile Gilot were married in Neuilly in December 1920.
1926... Françoise Gilot’s father, Emile, an authoritarian figure, first has her tutored at home, closely supervising her upbringing, pushing her to excel athletically and fostering her intellectual development. Although born left-handed, he insists that by age four, his daughter learn to write with her right hand, forcing Gilot to become ambidextrous.
1927... During her maternal grandmother’s annual New Year’s tea party held at her home with friends, young Françoise, now age 5, watches through the balustrade of the second floor landing as a tall man, wearing a black cape, a black suit with a white shirt and black and white polka dot tie and a black hat with a large flat brim, arrives at the party offering an oversized nosegay of purple violets as a gift for her grandmother. After the party, Françoise asks her grandmother about the impressive guest. Upon hearing that he is the painter, Emile Mairet, Françoise exclaims that she, too, will be a painter.
1928... Gilot’s mother begins tutoring Françoise in art, initially with English watercolors and India ink. Drawing with pencil is not encouraged as Madeleine Gilot believes it a deceptive medium for a beginner – if one draws with a pencil and makes a mistake one is tempted to erase the error while with ink or watercolor, one must transform the error into a deliberate element of the composition. The following year, Gilot is given a set of crayons by her maternal uncle.
1931... After more than five years of home tutoring, Gilot enters school one year advanced for her age. The Gilot family frequently spends summer holidays with distant relatives in Brittany, staying in a small fisherman’s cottage they owned in Treboul, near Douarnenez.
1932... In commemoration of her first communion, Gilot receives an oil painting by Emile Mairet that he gives her because of her preference for more melancholy gray canvases.
1933... In February, François Renoult, Gilot’s maternal grandfather, dies following a stroke. Anne Renoult elects to remain in the family house in Neuilly.
1934... Gilot begins studying with her mother’s former art teacher, Mlle. Meuge. Although she is her youngest student, Gilot quickly exhibits a remarkable propensity for draftsmanship. Her charcoal drawings and watercolors are charged with intensity and precision. She continues weekly instruction for the next six years.
In February, Françoise meets Genevieve, a transfer student from Fontes, at school in Neuilly. Though Genevieve is a year and a half older, they sit next to each other in classes for the first year, remaining as schoolmates, meeting at every recess, until 1938. Images of Genevieve, a Catalan beauty with classical Greek features, immediately dominate Gilot’s drawings and sketches. Genevieve will become the most powerful and enduring leitmotif in Gilot’s career.
1935... Gilot begins to exhibit the independence of spirit and imagination that will come to characterize her both as an artist and a person. Although her father envisions her future career objectives to be that of a scientist or lawyer, she continues to find every opportunity to nurture her interest in art. During this period, frequent visits to museums in France and abroad instill in Gilot a rich appreciation and understanding of the masters.
1936... Françoise and her parents occasionally spend weekends at the country estate of long time family friend and noted Post-Impressionist etcher, Jacques Beurdeley, in Provins, about 50 miles east of Paris. During these visits to the country, Beurdeley teaches the young and enthusiastic Françoise the essential and creative aspects of etching and dry point. In the mornings, mentor and student wander into the adjacent countryside – copper plates in hand – creating etchings en plein-air. Afternoons are spent back at the studio where Françoise learns to discern the qualities of a fine original print by studying Beurdeley’s prized collection of etchings by Goya, Rembrandt, Whistler, and others.
1938... In the winter, Gilot establishes her first studio in the attic space at the home of her maternal grandmother, Anne Renoult.
At the age of seventeen, Gilot completes her baccalaureat-philosophy of The University of Paris. In the fall and winter, Gilot attends the Sorbonne and the British Institute in Paris where she completes a degree in English literature from Cambridge University the following spring.
1939... During the months of May and June, Gilot’s friend from school, Genevieve - now also an aspiring artist - travels to Paris to visit with Françoise. During this summer, Gilot decides that it is time for her to expand as an artist and she purchases her first brushes, oil paints, and palette.
In September, only a few days after the declaration of war, Gilot travels to the family holiday cottage in Brittany. While visiting with friends of her parents, she meets Endre Rozsda, a young Hungarian painter, for the first time. Although she goes twice during her stay to see his paintings, Rozsda takes little notice of the young Françoise.
By October, Emile Gilot decrees that Françoise must focus all of her academic energies upon becoming a lawyer specializing in international law. Fearing that Paris might be bombed, Gilot is sent to Rennes, a city northwest of Paris, for her first year of law school.

Leni Riefenstahl

2008-07-05T07:30:00.000-07:00

Leni Riefenstahl nació en Berlín el 22 de agosto de 1902. Falleció a los 101 años, en 2003. Rompió en sus 101 años de vida infinidad de esquemas y aportó al cine multitud de experiencias innovadoras que es necesario destacarlas por su brillantez a pesar de su vinculación y colaboración durante una década con la ideología nazi y su cúpula de poder.
De muy joven inició su carrera como bailarina. Una lesión de menisco la alejó temporalmente de la escena. En 1924 se puso en contacto con el Dr. Arnold Fank, tras ver una película suya sobre los Alpes dolomitas. Con Fank, además de protagonizar varias películas, entre ellas El Monte Sagrado, colaboró durante muchos años y aprendió a manejar la cámara.
La película de Eisenstein El acorazado Potemkin, le hizo decidir su vida dedicándola al cine. Poco a poco, arriesgando su persona en escenas difíciles y su dinero en la producción de films, labró una reputación con la que estuvo a punto de llegar a Hollywood.
Pero no quiso limitarse a la subordinación de ser actriz: en 1932 dirigió su primera película, La luz azul, filme situado en los Alpes, que tras ser premiada en la Mostra Venecia, la lanzó a la fama internacional. Ella interpretaba el papel principal. Hitler, poco antes de llegar al poder, el 30 de enero de 1933, quiso conocerla y le fue presentada.
Mientras otros cineastas se expatriaban, como Fritz Lang y Robert Wiene, Leni, gracias al doctor Goebbels, se convirtió en «la cineasta número uno del nuevo régimen». Hitler causó gran impacto en la actriz y directora, que aceptó la dirección de dos documentales sobre el congreso del partido, La victoria de la fe (1933) y El triunfo de la voluntad (1936). Esta obtuvo el Premio Nacional de Cinematografía, la medalla de oro en la Bienal de Venecia, y medalla de oro también en la Exposición Universal de Paris en 1937.
Para acallar las críticas de algunos generales de Hitler por la gran confianza que el Führer tenía hacia ella, filmó un corto sobre la Wermacht. En ese tiempo viajó por España para rodar los exteriores de Tierra Baja, que acabaría aparcada por falta de financiación.
Con Olimpíada, una epopeya sobre los Juegos Olímpicos de Berlín de 1936, obtuvo no solamente el gran reconocimiento del gobierno y pueblo nazi, sino que además fue premiada con gran éxito de público y crítica con un León de Oro en el Festival de Venecia. Olimpíada se estrenó el día del cumpleaños de Hitler en sesión privada, en dos partes Fiesta de los pueblos y Fiesta de la belleza.
Leni Riefenstahl tuvo a su disposición todo tipo de recursos, tanto económicos como técnicos, en momentos en que la restricción económica afectaba al resto de los cineastas.
Mientas tanto, siguió con el rodaje de Tierra Baja, para la cual, construyó en Alemania una aldea de estilo español. La contratación como extras de un grupo de gitanos le llevó posteriormente a ser acusada de haberlos sacado de un campo de concentración y de haberlos utilizado como esclavos.
Debido a los constantes bombardeos sobre Berlín se trasladó a Kitzbühel (Austria), donde depositó todo el material de sus películas, incluida Tierra Baja de la que tan sólo faltaba el trabajo de sincronización y montaje.
Tras el final de guerra, fue detenida e interrogada por el ejército norteamericano. Le fue confiscada la casa y todas sus posesiones, ente ellas las copias de sus películas. Leni se defendió siempre de sus acusaciones de nazismo diciendo que había pecado de ingenua pero no de mala voluntad. Como tantos miles de alemanes de aquella época, negó conocer el exterminio que estaba sucediendo en su país. No obstante, nunca lo lamentó.
Tras ser liberada por los norteamericanos, una guarnición francesa en El Tirol, la volvió a detener. Más tarde se le confiscaron todos los bienes, incluyendo el material fotográfico. Vivió varios meses en la miseria y su matrimonio fracasó. Se le recluyó durante tres meses en un manicomio, en el que se le aplicó electroshock para «desnazificarla»
En varios juicios sucesivos, a instancias norteamericanas y francesas, salió con veredicto favorable, que reconocía su no-implicación ni en el partido ni en ninguna otra de sus ramificaciones y que su relación con Hitler y su partido era estrictamente profesional. Tras un última apelación la calificaron solamente como simpatizante (no perteneciente) del partido nazi.
Tras varios años de pleitos consiguió recuperar parte de sus pertenencias, sobre todo sus rollo de película. Veinte años después de haber sido empezada, terminó el montaje y estrenó Tierra Baja.
Viajó por África, donde quedó prendada por unas fotografías de los atléticos cuerpos de «Los Nuba». Se obsesionó con la idea de filmarlos, y a pesar de los peligros y los consejos en contra (tenía ya 60 años), partió para el sur de Sudán en las más adversas circunstancias.
Las fotografías y filmaciones de «Los Nuba» dieron la vuelta al mundo. Para lograrlas se integró en las costumbres de la tribu y aprendió su lengua. Con su colaborador y cámara, Horst Kettner, en 1968, se adentró en territorios desconocidos y filmó a varias tribus que nunca habían tenido contacto con el mundo de occidente.
Su culto al cuerpo en forma de imágenes fotográficas y filmadas, sirvió a sus críticos para indicar sus evocaciones de la ideología nazi. En la última etapa de su vida profesional, prefirió eliminar de sus imágenes al ser humano. Desde mediados de los años setenta comenzó a fotografiar arrecifes de coral, un tema que incluso le permitió filmar una última película, ya absolutamente vaciada de contenido, Impresiones bajo el agua, que realizó con 97 años y presentó en el 2000, ya con 100 años. Aprendió submarinismo a los 72 años y con más de 90 siguió lanzándose en paracaídas.
Falleció a los 101 años, en 2003.

Leni Riefenstahl was born in Berlin on August 22, 1902. She died at 101 years, in 2003. Broke into its 101 years of life myriad of schemes and contributed to the cinema crowd of innovative experiments that need highlighted by her brilliance despite their engagement and collaboration for a decade with the Nazi ideology and its dome of power.

From a very young age she began her career as a dancer. An injury to the meniscus temporarily left the scene. In 1924 she contacted Dr. Arnold Fank, after seeing a movie on his own the Alps dolomites. With Fank, in addition to several films starring, among them El Monte Sagrado, worked for many years and learned to handle the camera. Eisenstein's film The Battleship Potemkin, made her decide her life devoted to the cinema. Little by little, putting her in difficult scenes and money in the production of films, built up a reputation with which she was about to come to Hollywood.

But she did not want to be limited to the subordination of being an actress: in 1932 directed her first film, light blue, film located in the Alps, which after being awarded at the Venice Mostra, launched to the international fame. She played the lead role. Hitler, shortly before coming to power on January 30, 1933, and she wanted to know it was filed. While other filmmakers are expatriates, as Fritz Lang and Robert Wiene, Leni, thanks to Dr. Goebbels, became " the filmmaker number a new regime. " Hitler caused great impact on the actress and director, who accepted the leadership of two documentaries on the party congress, Victory of Faith (1933) and the triumph of the will (1936). This won the National Film Award, the gold medal at the Venice Biennale, and also gold medal at the World Exhibition in Paris in 1937.

To quell criticism from some general Hitler for the great confidence that the Führer had towards her, a short film on the Wermacht. At that time he traveled to Spain to film the outside of Low Earth, which eventually parked for lack of funding. With Olympiad, a saga about the Olympic Games in Berlin in 1936, won not only the great appreciation of the Nazi government and people, but also was rewarded with great public and critical success with a Golden Lion at the Venice Film Festival. Olympiad was unveiled on the day of Hitler's birthday at a private meeting in two parts Feast of the Feast of the people and beauty.

Leni Riefenstahl had at its disposal all sorts of resources, both financial and technical, at a time when the economic restrictions affecting the rest of the filmmakers. While, therefore, continued with the shooting of Low Land, which built a village in Germany Spanish style. The hiring an extra charge of a group of Gypsies led her later to be accused of having benefited from a concentration camp and they have been used as slaves.

Due to the constant bombardment on Berlin moved to Kitzbühel (Austria), where she deposited the material of his films, including Low Earth from which only the lack of synchronization and assembly work.

In the aftermath of war, she was arrested and interrogated by the U.S. military. She was seized the house and all their possessions, among them copies of their movies. Leni was always defended their accusations of Nazism, saying that she had sinned of naive but not ill will. Like so many thousands of Germans of that time, she denied knowing the extermination was happening in her country. However, she never regretted it.

After being liberated by the Americans, a French garrison in the Tyrol, the re-arrest. She was later confiscated all property, including photographic material. She lived several months in misery and her marriage failed. She was detained for three months in a mental hospital, where she applied for electroshock " desnazificarla " In several subsequent trials, at the American and French, left with a favorable verdict, which acknowledged its non-involvement in either the party or any another of its ramifications, and that his relationship with Hitler and her party was strictly business. After a final appeal the rated only as a sympathizer (outside) of the Nazi party.

After several years of litigation to recover some of their belongings, especially your roll of film. Twenty years after it was started, ended the assembly and premiered Low Earth. He traveled to Africa, where it was turned on for a few photographs of the athletic bodies of " The Nuba. " Was obsessed with the idea of filming, and despite the dangers and against the advice (she was already 60 years), departed for southern Sudan in the most adverse circumstances. The photographs and filming of " The Nuba " gave back to world. To achieve integrated into the customs of the tribe and learned their language. With his collaborator and camera, Horst Kettner, in 1968, entered into unknown territory and filmed several tribes who had never had contact with the western world.

Her cult of the body in the form of photographs and filmed, she served her critics to show their evocations of Nazi ideology. In the last stage of her life, chose to remove their images to humans. Since the mid-seventies began photographing coral reefs, an issue which even allowed her to film a movie, and totally emptied of contents, Impressions under water, which conducted 97 years and introduced in 2000, already 100 years . She learned to scuba diving 72 years and over 90 rushing followed by parachute. She died at 101 years, in 2003.

Safo de Lesbos

2008-07-05T07:25:00.000-07:00

(Lesbos, actual Grecia, s. VII a.C.-id., s. VI a.C.)
Poetisa griega. Pocos datos ciertos se tienen acerca de Safo, de quien tan sólo se conservaron 650 versos, extraídos de citas tardías y del moderno estudio de papiros. Vivió toda su vida en Lesbos, con la excepción de un corto exilio en Sicilia motivado por las luchas aristocráticas. Supuestamente perteneciente a la aristocracia, llevó la vida propia de las mujeres de la clase alta, alejadas necesariamente del ambiente de luchas e intrigas políticas; según una tradición que parte de Anacreonte, era homosexual. Se la ha presentado siempre como profesora de una escuela de poesía fundada por ella, lo que es difícil de certificar, aunque sí es cierto que convivía con sus compañeras en un clima distendido y propicio a la contemplación y recreación en el arte y la belleza. De su obra, que al parecer constaba de nueve libros de extensión variada, se han conservado algunos Epitalamios, cantos nupciales para los cuales creó un ritmo propio y un metro nuevo, que pasó a denominarse sáfico, y fragmentos de poemas dirigidos a algunas de las mujeres que convivían con ella. En ellos se entrevé la expresión de una subjetividad que se recrea en sutiles oscilaciones de ánimo, en un intento de dar forma a la pasión. Presenta la pasión amorosa como una fuerza irracional, situada entre el bien y el mal, que se apodera del ser humano y se manifiesta en diversas formas, como los celos, el deseo o una intangible nostalgia, e incluso produce reacciones físicas, como las que describe detalladamente en uno de sus poemas, el más completo que se ha conservado de ella. Su poesía tuvo un gran éxito ya en la Antigüedad, y sirvió de fuente de inspiración a grandes poetas, como Teócrito o Catulo ya a partir de la época alejandrina se puso de manifiesto el interés por conservar su obra e intentar descubrir nuevas partes. A pesar de lo fragmentario de su producción conservada, parece que Safo consiguió hacer realidad su deseo, acorde con la concepción helénica de la poesía, de hacer perdurable su amor a través de su creación poética.

(Lesbos, Greece today, s. VII BC-id., S. VI BC)
Greek poet. Few details have been certain about Sappho, of whom only 650 were retained verses, dating from late and the modern study of papyri. She lived her entire life in Lesbos, with the exception of a short exile in Sicily motivated by the struggles aristocratic. Allegedly belonging to the aristocracy, took the life of its own for women of the upper class, remote necessarily environment struggles and political intrigues, as part of a tradition that Anacreonte, was gay. It has always presented as a teacher of a school founded by her poetry, which is difficult to certify, although it is true that lived with their partners and in a climate conducive to contemplation and recreation in the art and beauty. In her book, which reportedly consisted of nine books of varying length, have kept some Epitalamios, wedding songs for which they created a rhythm and a new meter, which was renamed Sapphic, and fragments of poems directed at some of the Women who lived with her. They glimpse the expression of a subjectivity that is recreated in subtle mood swings, in an attempt to shape the passion. Presents the passion of love as an irrational, between good and evil, that seizes the human being and is manifested in various forms, such as jealousy, desire or an intangible nostalgia, and even produce physical reactions, such as those described in detail in one of her poems, the most complete that has been kept from her. Her poetry was a great success already in ancient times, and served as a source of great inspiration to poets, including Teócrito Catulus or longer from the time Alexandrian it became clear interest in preserving her work and try to discover new parts. Despite the patchy kept its production, it seems that Sappho was able to realize their wish, according to the Greek conception of poetry, making his enduring love through his poetic creation.